The Gupta Age: Polity, Military and Other Details

Polity:

The main sources for understanding the polity of the Guptas are literary and archaeological.

Among the literary sources, mention must be made of Kamandaka’s Neetisara and Manusmriti, or Mam Dharmasastra, the codified Vedic and Puranic literature along with the contemporary literary pieces and foreign accounts.

Among archaeological sources, mention must be made of royal Prasastis like the Allahabad or Prayaga Prasasti of Samudra Gupta and many other epigraphs, and the coins and clay seals issued by the Gupta rulers, in particular the Aswamedha type of coins with titles of the kings on them.

The above-mentioned sources give an idea of the nature and dynamics of the Gupta polity. Generally, the rule of the Guptas in northern India is characterized as imperial government. However, this is not very correct, as centralized control of the Gupta polity does not appear to be a fact.

N.N. Bhattacharya observes, “The Allahabad Pillar inscription refers to Samudragupta quite in accordance with Manu’s concept of Kingship as a God dwelling on earth and that the Gupta kings, like their predecessors, the Kushanas and the Mauryas, tried to put this idea into practice, but it was possible only on a limited scale, in areas which lay within a manageable distance from the capital. The rest of the empire and the occupied territories were put in charge of the local rulers, mostly by erstwhile masters of the land, acting almost independently as feudatories or vassals who paid only a token submission to the imperial authority”.

Central Administration and the King:

The king was the central figure in the administration. They assumed titles like Maharajadhiraja, Samrat, Ekadhiraja, Chakravarthi, Paramabhattaraka, Paramadaivata and Parameswara. The Allahabad Prasasti of Samudragupta eulogizes the king as “equal to the Gods; Dhanada (Kubera), Varuna (Rain God), Indra and Antaka (Yama), who had no antagonist of equal power in the world”.

In Bhitari pillar inscription, Skandagupta is glorified as a person who “subdued the earth and became merciful to the conquered people, but he became neither proud nor arrogant though his glory was increasing day by day”. Kumaragupta is said to have followed the true path of religion.

From the above statements we come to know that the kings in spite of being called gods living on earth had to follow a righteous path by putting into practice the following duties:

(1) To decide the policy of the state during war or peace,

(2) To lead the army in times of war,

(3) To protect the subjects against foreign invasion and internal disturbances,

(4) To support religious and pious people,

(5) To venerate learned people,

(6) To act as supreme judge and decide cases on the basis of religious precepts and existing customs,

(7) To appoint central and provincial officers, and

(8) To nominate or appoint a successor to the king as recorded in the Allahabad Prasasti and the Apratihata type coins of Kumaragupta.

One more feature is the continuation of an office by various kings in their regions once they accepted the sovereignty of the Guptas and non-interference of the emperor in the administration of such regions.A council of ministers and other officials who were appointed by him assisted the king. Though the Gupta epigraphs refer to ministers, they do not clearly mention the functions and the hierarchy of the ministers.

The king used to take counsel of his ministers and issue written orders to officials on all important matters. The exact strength of the Mantrimandali or Mantriparishad is not known. Besides the Mantries or ministers, the Gupta epigraphs refer to Mahabaladhikrita or Commander-in-Chief, Mahadandanayaka or the Chief Executive General and Mahapratihara or the Chief of the palace guards. For the first time in the Gupta epigraphs, reference to a high imperial officer Sandhivigrahika or Minister for peace and war looking after external affairs is made.

Officials like Kumaramatyas and Ayuktakas acted as a link between the centre and provincial administration. Perhaps, the Guptas appointed their princes as agents of central administration and such were called ‘Kumaramatyas’. The suggested criterion for ministers and high officials was that only individuals with character, wisdom, and dedication to service of state were selected.

However, there is evidence to prove that in many instances these offices were hereditary in nature. It is suggested that there existed besides Mantri Mandali, a war council or a Sabha with certain powers. The exact nature and scope of the war council or Sabha are not known.

The royal household appears to have used the services of a number of officers such as Mahapratihara or the chief usher of the palace, Vinayasura, who conducted visitors to the king, and Khadyatapallika or superintendent of the royal kitchen. The Guptas do not appear to have divided the jobs into civil and military, because sometimes Kumaramatyas also acted as Mahadandanayakas.

Provincial Administration:

The Gupta Empire was divided for the sake of administrative convenience into Tira Bhukti, etc. Pundravardhana Bhukti is identified as North Bengal and Tira Bhukti is identified as North Bihar. The king directly appointed the Uparika, who was the ruler of a Bhukti. Some scholars hold the view that viceroys, who were invariably princes, ruled the provinces or Bhuktis. It is also suggested that these Kumaramatyas acted as a link between the centre and the provinces. The ‘bhuktis’ or ‘desas’ and ‘rashtras’ were further divided into districts, called Vishayas. Vishayapatis ruled these Vishayas in some cases and Ayukthakas in other cases.

Gupta epigraphs from Bengal suggest the head of desas, rashtras and bhuktis. The epigraphs refer to Rundravardhana Bhukti and of the district or Adhikarana are associated with a number of representatives of the major community of the locality, like the Nagara Sresti head of the city merchants, Sardhavaha caravan leader, Pradhama Kulika head of the artisan community, and Pradhama Kayastha head of the Kayasthas. There were officers known as Pustapalas whose duty was to manage and maintain records.

It is also suggested that there existed units of group of villages between the Vishaya and the lowest unit. Grama, Sometimes a group of villages was called Pithaka or Samtaka. We do not know whether there was a separate body administering the cities but somehow a view prevails that a body comprising Nagarasresti, Sardhavaha, Pradhama Kulika, Pradhama Kayastha and Pustapala administered the city. We are not certain whether the city had a separate set-up or was a part of the Vishaya.

The village was the lowest unit of the administrative structure. The headman of the village was known as Gramapati or Gramadyaksha. It appears that the Gramavriddhas or village elders decided disputes in the villages.

There are references to Asthakuladhikarana, Gramikas, Kutumbins and Mahattaras though it is not certain whether these terms, refer to designations or units of administration. N.N. Bhattacharya is of the opinion that the mahattaras are the village elders. He suggests that a property owner’s area is known as Bhoga.

The Deo-Baranak epigraph of the later Guptas refers to the following administrative divisions: Bhukti, Mandala, Vishaya, Grama and Agrahara. Thus, we find different units of administration under the Guptas about which much cannot be said at this juncture. During the time of the Guptas, a number of vassals or feudatories exercised independent control in their domains while recognizing the sovereignty of the Guptas.

At least three categories of feudatories may be identified:

(i) Feudatory lines existing before the rise of the suzerain power but reduced to vassalage;

(ii) Feudatory lines established by junior branches of the imperial dynasty; and

(iii) Feudatories through imperial creation. During the Gupta period, the first categories of feudatories were very common.

The fact that Gupta control on feudatories was not strong can be substantiated by the following instances. The Vallabhi princes issued coins mentioning the names of the Gupta kings but with their own symbol of trident instead of the peacock symbol of the Guptas, likewise the Parivrajaka Maharaja land grants refer to the Gupta era without recording the names of the Gupta rulers. There are instances that reveal that the Gupta polity was not centralized, but layered. The Gupta polity became layered because of the strategy adopted by the rulers.

Military:

The invasions and conquests of the Guptas, the appearance of the designation of Sandhivigrhika for the first time as also of the official title of Mahabaladhikrita mentioned in the epigraphs presupposes that the Guptas maintained a standing army. But, there is no evidence as to the strength of this army The reference to officers like Pilupati or the head of elephants, Asvapati or the head of horses and Narapati or the head of foot-soldiers, establishes that the army consisted of these divisions and it may be suggested that they were under the control of Mahabaladhikrita.

We also come across a reference to another officer by name Ranabhandagarika, identified as the officer-in-charge of stores, who maintained and supervised the offensive and defensive armament of the army. In times of war, the king himself personally led the armies.

They used battle-axes, bows and arrows, spear spikes, swords, lances and javelins in the battlefield. It is not known whether the army was structured in gradation form or not. It is believed that the army was paid in cash but it is doubtful, as the resource base of the Guptas does not appear to be very large, sound enough to meet the demand of a large standing army.

Revenue:

The Gupta state was based on land revenue and other taxes collected from traders and others. An officer, Gopaswamin worked as Akshapatabaladhikrita in the time of Samudragupta. The duty of this officer appears to be to maintain detailed account registers, and keep a close watch over the financial transactions. An officer by designation Pustapala is identified as record keeper of all the trans­actions.

As land revenue was the major source of income, they maintained a regular department for the proper survey and measurements of lands as well as proper collection of the land tax. From Kalidasa’s works and Kamandaka’s Neetisara that the state collected one-sixth of the produce as the land tax. Besides this tax, the state levied a tax called Uparikara on cloth and oil at different points of sale.

The state collected Sulka for permitting the traders to carry on their trade and in case of defaulters; the state collected a fine eight times of the original Sulka. The king as a right enforced Vishti or forced labour, Bali and other contributions. The income from the royal lands was treated as the personal income of the king. Besides these, the king controlled treasure troves, jewels and valuable articles accidentally found while digging the earth and on mines and manufacture of salt. A view prevails that the state did not get substantial income from trade and commerce as long-distance trade declined, leading to an urban decay during this period.

Another important aspect that deserves our consideration and bears on the economy and polity was the issue of land grants to Brahmins and secular benefi­ciaries for their services to the state. This practice of making land grants with the right to collect one-third or one-half of the produce from the cultivator with immunities from what led to reduced state control over them and loss of the income to the state.

Slowly the king lost control and right over large tracts of land. This practice created a class of landed intermediaries who became a dominant economic group, and the officers and vassals became stronger in course of time and began to threaten the stability and security of the empire. The vassals developed audacity and proclaimed themselves Nripa, Narapati and Kshitipa as can be seen in Raghuvamsa and epigraphs of the period.

One of the consequences of this feature was the slow and gradual fragmen­tation of political power between the centre and peripheral areas ruled by the vassals, and the rise of a political hierarchy of Samanta, Mahasamanta, Mandalesvara and Mahamandaleswara and eventually to the feudalization of state power. This made B.D. Chattopadhyaya observe, “Corrosion of centralisation acquired a faster pace in the Gupta period” and R.S. Sharma to call the Gupta phase “Proto-feudal Polity”.

A.L. Basham’s observation “they (the Guptas) failed to establish an adequate administrative setup” appears to be right. Though the Gupta phase is designated as imperial, a critical examination of the polity of the Guptas makes it clear that the Guptas followed a policy of status quo and short-term gains instead of a vision of a pan-Indian empire, though they had the resources and ability to achieve that objective. Raghavendra Vajpai comments that by their short-sighted policy they paved the way for the pan-Indian manifestation of feudalism in the so-called ‘golden age of early Indian history’.

Economy:

Agriculture was the main occupation of the people and the state received the maximum income from the agricultural operations. There existed many social groups engaged in different crafts, commerce and trade. However, trade and commerce appear to be limited to internal consumption alone during this period.

Consequently, we find increasing ruralization of economy and the practice of making land grants to religious and secular beneficiaries for their services. Though a large number of gold, silver and copper coins of the Guptas were available, there is no clear evidence that salaries were paid in cash. It is suggested that the changes in the pattern of economic production brought about changes in relations between social groups also.

The Gupta epigraphs refer to various types of land, depending on use and utility. Land under cultivation is generally known as Kshetra and lands not under cultivation or kept fallow are called Khila or Aprahata. A study of the epigraphs further reveals that more and more Khila land became Kshetra in course of time.

The Guptas classified land according to soil, fertility and the use to which it was put. Land was measured but the method of measurement differed from place to place. While in some areas, the land was measured as Nivartanas, in Bengal it was known as Kulyavapa and Dronavapa. The Gupta cultivators knew and grew crops like barley, wheat, paddy, all varieties of pulses, grains, vegetables, and cash crops like sugarcane and cotton.

As agriculture was the main occupation of the majority of people and the major source of income to the state, the state took care of promoting irrigation facilities. For example, when Sudarsan Lake was severely damaged during the time of Skandagupta, Parnadatta, the Governor of Saurashtra and Chakrapalita, ensured that water drawn from wells was supplied through channels.

Probably, the type of mechanism known as Araghatta was also in vogue. But, mostly, rainwater collected in the ponds was used for irrigation. Overall, compared to the Mauryan period, government intervention in provision of irrigation facilities appears to be minimal in the Gupta age. By the time of the Guptas, the land or Kshetra appears to have become a commodity that could be sold and purchased.

There is sufficient evidence to prove that land was purchased by individuals from the government and granted in turn to Brahmins, Buddhists, or Jainas and to secular beneficiaries like small rulers. With the growth of ruling families of small localities, the land that was granted to them also increased.

Therefore, a new class of landowners who did not cultivate land came into existence. Further, society began to recognize and praise those who gifted land as noble and pious persons, indicating change in the attitude of society. This new class of landowners was ascribed to a superior Varna. Probably, the Gramikas, Kutumbins and Mahattaras often mentioned in epigraphs are of this category.

Compared to the new class of landed gentry, the condition of the ordinary cultivators known by names such as Krishivala, Karshaka or Kinass appears to be lowly; through they did not occupy a low position as postulated by some historians. There were both male and female slaves.

The Kamasutra of Vatsyayana described graphically how their masters put the female slaves to a lot of hardship. With the growth of non-cultivating owners of land, the burden of taxation fell largely on the shoulders of the actual tillers of the soil. The number of taxes imposed and collected grew in number. Added to these, the imposition of Vishti or forced or unpaid labour made the condition of marginal tillers of the soil very depressing.

Crafts:

Production of domestic and luxury items was very much in vogue during this period. The artisans made items like earthen pots, baskets, metal tools and furniture for daily use along with luxury items of jewellery made of gold, silver and precious stones, ivory objects, fine cotton cloth and silks. While some were manufactured locally, some were available imported through trade. Though literature graphically describes various items, these are not found in the archae­ological excavations.

Contemporary Sanskrit texts like Amarakosa and Brihatsamhita mention different categories of artisan’s manufacmring different items. Archaeological reports of excavations at Taxila, Ahichchatra, Mathura, Rayaghar, Kausambi and Pataliputra in the Gangetic valley record a variety of objects like earthenware, terracotta objects, beads made of different stones, objects of glass and items made of metals. The Gupta period also witnessed considerable increase of trade. This can be deduced from a number of metal coins issued by them in gold, silver and copper that must have been used for commercial exchange.

Based on the representation given to the Nagarasresti and the Sarthavaha in the administration of the city scholars suggest that merchants ranked in society. Both artisans and merchants had their organiza­tions to carry on their activities, and to take care of the interests of their members. These organizations are called ‘srenis’ or guilds. In this age, the status and position of artisans was not uniform, because Dharmasastras that were codified during this period assigned different ranks to different groups of artisans; they were given a status lower than three castes of the varna model and each craftsman group formed into a Jati or caste.

The guilds maintained their own armies for their safety and issued their own seals to protect their merchandise. Interestingly, numerous seals belonging to a joint guild of bankers, traders and transport merchants having branches in different parts of northern India are found at Vaisali, the modern Basarh.

Textile and metal industries appear to have flourished in this age. Though there was a great demand for textiles in domestic market, there was decline in silk cloth industry due to the absence of long distance trade outside India. This made members of silk weaving guild of western India give up the manufacture of silk and take to other occupations. One of these is iron making, the best example of which is the Mehrauli pillar.

This pillar of Chandra is regarded as a marvel of metallurgical skill. The iron pillar is 7 metres tall and weighs over 6,000 kgs. Its specialty is that it has not rusted or corroded, though kept in an open space through all these centuries. A.L. Basham writes that the metallur­gical skill of ancient India is further attested by the fact that this pillar, though it has weathered the torrential rains for over 1,500 monsoons, shows no signs of rusting.

This is not because the Indians had discovered some form of stainless steel alloy, for the column is of iron almost chemically pure. Several sugges­tions have been put forward to account for the remarkable durability of the iron pillar but no fully satisfactory explanation has been given.

The theory, confidently proposed in the scientific journal (J.C. Hudson, Nature, 12. DC, 53, p. 499) that the dry atmosphere of Delhi is sufficient cause is quite inade­quate since Delhi is very humid during the rainy season, when ordinary iron quickly rusts. Since the process of oxidization demands a catalyst, it may be the great purity of the metal that has preserved the iron pillar so long, as another memorial to India’s technical skill. Iron of superior quality was manufactured and exported. Besides iron industry, the manufacture of gold and silver ornaments also reached a high peak.

Cutting and polishing of precious stones, ivory crafts, sculpture, pottery and pearl industries also flour­ished, increasing aridity and a deadline in the quality of life of the people. Fahien might have found the conditions in Gupta India better than what he had seen elsewhere. Fahien, the Chinese Buddhist who spent years in the Gupta court pays glowing tribute to the economic prosperity of the Gupta age. “(Magadha) has the largest cities and towns. Its people are rich and thriving and emulate one another in practising charity of heart and duty to one’s neighbour.

The elders and gentry of this country have instituted in their capital free hospitals and hither came all poor and helpless patients, orphans, widows and cripples. They are all well taken care of, a doctor attended on them, and food and medicines supplied according to their needs. They are all more comfortable and when they are cured they go away”. This statement of Fahien appears to be an exaggeration to some historians. M.K. Dhavalikar suggests that historical archaeology proves that the number of historical sites relating to the Gupta and the post-Gupta periods declined to more than half, i.e., from 353 sites to 118 and this indicates that occupation of the sites of the Gupta period betrays deterioration in the quality of life.

Society:

The general perception prevalent among scholars is that Indian society remained static throughout the ages without any perceptible changes in the nature and functions of social order. However, this is not very correct as change and continuity cannot be seen in the practices of the society. Though, the Chaturvarna system is considered the basis of the Gupta society, we notice deviations and departure in actual observance of Smriti law.

During the Gupta age the relationship between caste and occupation was observed; there was no rigid rule of following the occupations prescribed by the Chaturvarna system. By this time, the Dharmasastras accepted intermarriage or Varnasankara, and many foreign families of Scythian origin of the pre-Gupta period were accorded the semi-Kshatriya or Vratyakshatriya status and tribals who were absorbed into the Sanatana Dharma society were given fictitious origins.

The Dharmasastras also sanction Apaddharma or conduct to be followed during emergencies. As a result, we find Brahmans and Kshatriyas adopting occupations not allowed by the Dharmasastras. Another feature is that the Sudras and Vaisyas tried to imitate the upper castes.

Society was in a flux, accommodating the interests of the new social groups, though Brahmins continued to wield considerable influence because of their skill and proficiency in learning. The practice of issuing land grants to Brahmins itself was a deviation from the Dharmasastra injunction, which practice made them become in course of time landholders of significance, though tilling was the occupation of the Sudras.

It is to be noted that only the highly learned among the Brahmins could become landholders; it may be recognition of their scholarship, and the term Dwija began to be used increasingly. Brahmin offenders and criminals were not let off altogether and were often expelled from the state. A.L. Basham writes, “Even in the Gupta Period, however, the regulations were by no means rigid. Hypergamous inter­marriage was recognised and the rule of craft exclusiveness was often ignored, or circumvented by the convenient escape clauses of Apadharma, and in the earlier law books, the Brahmin was permitted to accept food from any Aryan”.

The Gupta period witnessed a rise in the status of the Sudras because the Dharmasastras made a distinction between the slaves and the Sudras, or they themselves belonged to Dharanagotra, a gotra of the agricultural community. Romila Thapar attributes this feature to the failure on the part of the Guptas to introduce a centralized administrative structure in turn reduced the pressure on the Sudras.

However, that the position of outcastes remained as before is testified by the statements of Fahien. Though there was acculturation process throughout the course of Indian history, some of the aboriginal tribes remained outside the pale Sanatana Dharma. Not only did slavery continue during this period, but also more rules were framed regarding slavery.

It was declared by Dharmasastras that a Brahmin could never be a slave and purchase and sale of a Brahmin woman was declared void. It is further stated, that if a Brahman woman marries a slave, she would become a slave but a slave woman giving birth to a child to her master is made a free woman.Though Dharmasastras prescribe marriages between the same castes, inter-Varna marriages were accepted as a norm. The joint family system was in vogue and property was divided between the father and the sons equally.

The position of woman continued to be one of subordination to man. Limited educational facilities were provided to upper caste women and their right to property was recognized, and marriage of young girls was in vogue. Arranged marriage by the parents was the norm but Gandharva type of marriages were known.

The position of widows was highly deplorable, as they had to lead a strict life of celibacy. Brihaspati, as an alternative to widowhood, recommended the custom of Sati. This practice was commended as well as criticized during the Gupta period. An Eran inscription of 6th century AD contains a reference to Sati. Marriage of widows, though disfavoured, was not completely forbidden. Even if a widow remarried, she did not enjoy social status.

According to Dharma Sastras, the function of a woman was only to be an ideal wife and ideal mother. Interestingly, the Dharmasastras accord the status of Sudra to a woman. Another aspect of social life that deserves mention is the difference between the urban rich and rural poor social life. The city dweller or Nagarika led a life of luxury and affluence. Vatsayana’s Kamasutra and other literary texts give a graphic description of the affluent class of Nagarikas.

The poor of the city as well as of the village lived at subsistence level. A normal feature of city life was the presence of the courtesans. As a social group, they enjoyed considerable esteem and freedom. Some of them are well known for their accomplishment and beauty. The institution of Devadasi, or girls dedicated to God is known from records. Some women took to prostitution as livelihood. Thus, there is considerable disparity in the standard of living of Nagarika and of the rural poor villages.

While the royalty lived in magnificent buildings and the affluent in cities in comparative luxury, the poor lived in bamboo houses. Amarakosa gives a list of different kinds of ornaments worn by royalty and the rich. While the affluent used silver and gold, the poor had to be satisfied with iron, copper and pottery utensils. Terracotta figures available show us the ornaments and dresses of the Gupta times worn by the rich and the affluent.

It appears that they gave due importance to cleanliness. Fahien’s statement that killing animals, drinking wine, eating onions and garlic were unknown throughout Madhyadesa appears to be incorrect as wine drinking among the rich class was an established fact. The ordinary and rich alike had faith in omens, portents and the like.

Literature and Fine Arts:

Sanskrit as the language of the elite, and Prakrit as the language of common man were in vogue during the Gupta period. It is believed that Sanskrit language entered its classical phase in this age, considered the golden age of Sanskrit liter­ature. Royal patronage on a large scale was responsible for the wonderful Sanskrit dramas and Kavyas produced in this age. The greatest Sanskrit poets and dramatists, Kalidasa, is said to have adorned the court of Chandragupta II, as one of the Navaratnas.

His classical epics Raghuvamsa and Kumara Sambhava, dramas like the Sakuntalam and Malavikaimitram and lyrics like Meghasandesa and Ritusamhara are testimony to his literary excellence, as a dramatist and poet. Sudraka’s Mrichchakatika or the little clay cart, Visakhadatta’s Mudrarakshasa and Devichandraguptam. Bharavi’s KJrataaijuniyam, Subhandu’s Vasavadatta and Vishnusarma’s Panchatantra are the other great literary products of this age. Dandin’s Kavyadarsa and Dasakumaracharitra are also of the same age. Dharmasastras supposed to be written by Narada and Brihaspati belong to this period.

All the eighteen Puranas and Upapuranas were codified during this period. Philosophical works like Sahara’s, Bhasya or the Mimamsa of Jaimini, Isvarakrishna’s Sankhya Karika and Patanjali’s Vyasa Bhasthya, Nyaya Bhasya of Vatsyanyana, Yoga Bashya of Vyasa are said to be products of this age. In the field of science, it was really a remarkable age where we find Aryabhata’s Aryabhatia, Varahamihira’s Brihatsamhita, Panchasidhantika, and Vagbhatta’s Astangasangraha. There is also the classic on erotics, Kamasutra written by Vatsyayana. Thus, this age produced works of immortal value in all branches of learning in Sanskrit.

While Sanskrit was patronized by royalty, the commoners promoted and patronized Prakrit literature. Jains and the Buddhists did yeomen service to Prakrit and Pali languages. While the elitist class spoke Sanskrit, the Sudras and women spoke Prakrit in the Sanskrit dramas. The Buddhist writers Buddhghosa, Asanga, Vasubandhu and Dignaga are the great writers on Mahayana Buddhism. Budhaghosa’s Visudhamagga, Asanga’s Yogacharabhumisastra zndMahayam Samparigraha, Vzsuhzndhu’s Abhidhammakosa and Dignaga’s Pramanasamuchchaya are the most renowned works in the Sanskrit.

It is believed that Dignaga also wrote a Sanskrit drama Kundamala. The Jaina scholars, Umasvati and Siddhasena also wrote on philosophy. The Allahabad pillar Prasasti and Mehrauli pillar inscription are two examples of the Sanskrit inscriptions of that age.

Art:

Some historians are of the opinion that political unification, the newly emerged national spirit and economic prosperity led to a creative cultural movement under the Guptas. Consequently, it is said that art which was imitative until then became creative and artists abandoned copying of foreign forms. We are all aware that Hellenistic style and Mahayana Buddhism influenced the post-Mauryan and pre-Gupta art.

However, in this age, art and architecture were influenced by Puranic dharma. It is said by many scholars that this age reflected unprecedented artistic activity all over India. Art critics acclaim that various forms of art attained maturity, balance and naturalness of expression that is still to be surpassed. R.D. Banerji observes, “Gupta art is really a renaissance due to the transformation of the ideals of the people. This was based on an assimilation of what was old and an elimination of what was exotic and foreign and finally a systematic production of something new and essentially Indian”. Let us take a specific view of each of the braches of art.

Architecture:

In the history of architectural evolution of India, the Gupta age represents a definite dividing line, and the beginning of a new era. This Gupta age laid the foundations of a typical style of Indian architecture. Romila Thapar observes, “This was the age which saw attempts at building small stone temples to the Hindu deities, temples which within half a millennium were to become the dominant focuses of society in many parts of the subcontinent. Together with the temples came the carving of images and popular legends in stone”.

A.L. Basham also rightly observes, “There are no remains of free standing Hindu temples erected before the Gupta period, because by this time they must long have been built in perishable wood, clay and brick. From the Gupta period, however, several examples survive, chiefly in Western India all showing the same general pattern.

Pillars were usually ornate, with heavy bell shaped capitals surmounted by animal motifs, and the entrances were often carved with mytho­logical scenes and figures. All the Gupta temples were small, and most had flat roofs. Their masonry was held together without mortar, and was far larger and thicker than was necessary for the comparatively small buildings. Evidently the builders had not yet fully mastered their technique, and were still thinking in terms of cave”.

The finest Gupta temple, at Deogarh near Jhansi, probably of the 5th century AD, marks a great advance. “Here iron dowels were used to hold the masonry together, and a small tower arose above the sanctum. The portal veranda was continued all around the building, making a covered walk”. Art critics divide the Gupta temples into three groups. The first group of temples of Sanchi, Tigwa and Eran are flat-roofed square temples in this group; we first come across the Garbhagriha, a cubical cellar with a single entrance and a Mandapa or porch.

The Vishnu temple at Tigwa is the most typical example of this type. The pillars of this temple consist of “a massive abacus surrounded by a device of lions, a capital resembling a vase (Kalasa) or inverted lotus; a short shaft of many sides and a plain square or pedestal”. Purnakalasa or the vessal indicative of plenty is an important feature of the Gupta capital. At this stage or in the first group, we find a link with the pre-Guptan art features. For example, it is suggested, that the design of the pillar looks like the Garudadhwaja of Besnagar and the lions, like those of the Asokan capital.

The new feature of Tigwa temple is the shape and omamentions as well as the picture of Yamuna seated on tortoise on one side and Gariga seated on a crocodile on the other side distinguish from the pre-Gupta pictures. This became a prominent feature of the doors of the temples of the later Gupta age. The second group is represented by flat-roofed square sanctum-cellar inside a similar roofed cloister around the sanctum preceded by a porch, which are open and pillared with the projection of a flight of steps.

The Parvati temple at Nachana Kothura and Siva temple at Bhumara are the best examples of the second group of temples. The Bhumara temple is well known for its ornamental sculptures, decorated gateways, fine arabesque medallions, Kirthimukhas, Ganas and ceiling decorated with carving of foliage and creepers.

Its Sikhara or tower distinguishes the third group over the Garbhagudi, the sanctum sanctorum. Though the Sikharas are not available now, it is suggested that they represent a straight-edged pyramidical form. The most noted temples of the third group are Dasavatara temple at Deograph built of stone and the Bhitargan temple of brick. It is further said that there is also a rectangular temple with apsilate backs and barrel-vaulted roof above, examples of which temples are Durga temple and Kapotesvara temple at Aihole, another such is circular temple with, shallow projection at the four cardinal points, examples of which can be seen in the Maniyar Math.

Romila Thapar explained the reason for the style of the temple as follows:

“The free standing temple became necessary with the growth of image worship, since the image had to be appropriately housed and a cave was not adequate for this purpose. Gradually the image came to be surrounded by a host of attendant deities and figures, leading eventually to the rich sculptural ornamentation associated with later styles. Manuals of the construction of stone temple were written giving minute details of construction and these were faithfully followed.”

The Guptas continued the excavation of rock-cut caves but introduced extensive ornamentation of the facade, and improved the design of the pillars in the interior. The most important of such caves are found at Ajanta, Ellora and Bagh. Most of these rock caves exhibit the Buddhist faith and rarely do we come across Brahmanical and Jaina images in these. In the Gupta period, stupas and monasteries were also built of the stupas of this period, the stupa at Mirpur Khan in Sindh, Dhamekh Stupa at Saranadh, and the Buddhist Stupa at Ratnagiri deserve mention.

Excavations conducted at Samath and Nalanda have brought to light a number of Buddhist monasteries of the Gupta times. Inter­estingly, many of the Chaityas and Vihara caves of Ajanta were of the Gupta times but it is doubtful whether they enjoyed direct Gupta patronage. Of the 28 caves at Ajanta, 23 belong to the Gupta times. Of these 23, only two are Chaityas and the rest are Viharas.

Caves No. 12, 17 and 19 that are very ornate and considered the best specimens of this period. There are 11 Viharas at Aurangabad. It appears that the Jaina art of this period is very meagre. Besides temples, Gupta art can be known from the Mehrauli iron pillar and Buddha Gupta’s monolithic pillar at Eran. A lion abacus surmounts the shaft of the Eran pillar and it supports the images of God Vishnu. The Eran pillar is 13 metres in height, whereas Mehrauli iron pillar is 7 metres in height.

Contemporary Gupta epigraphs and later evidence of Hieuen Tsang testified to the fact that many structures were built in this period, but curiously, we have not many survivals of this legacy. As an answer to this phenomenon, it is suggested that the Islamic invaders might have destroyed many structures.

Romila Thapar observes, “unfortunately, not much has survived of the architectural achievements of the Guptas. It is often said that the iconoclasm of the Muslims five centuries later destroyed the temples of Northern India and this accounts for the lack of the Gupta remains. But it is probably nearer to the truth to say that the Gupta temples were unimpressive shrines which were either absorbed in domestic architecture or else were built over in later centuries”.

Whatever may be the reason for their absence now, the fact remains that they paved the way for the two distinct temple styles: the ‘Nagara’ and the ‘Dravida’, which dominated northern and southern Indian architecture of later times. One more feature to be observed is the survival of the remains of Buddhist structures even today.

Sculpture:

The artists of the Gupta age left behind for posterity excellent sculptural repre­sentations. Human figurines sculpted by the artists of this period are notable for their poise, flowing rhythm and grace. Elegance of form was achieved through the use of transparent dresses and restrained use of ornamentation. Images of several Hindu gods and goddesses as well as images of the Buddha and Bodhi- sattva reflect natural grace, perception and spiritual aura.

Art critics estimate that the Bhuvardha at the Udayagiri cave, Seshasayee Vishnu, Gajendra, Varadanda and Nara Narayana at Deogarh are the best specimens of Gupta age sculpture. Further, the Siva Parvati reliefs from Kosam and Ramayana panels of the Dasavatara temple at Deogarh are good instances of Gupta sculptural art.

Likewise, the most outstanding specimens of Buddhist sculptural art are the seated Buddha at Saranath and the standing Buddha at Mathura in sand stone. Besides the stone sculptures, the artists made bronze and copper images of the Buddha of them, the most impressive are the ones found at Sultanganj, Nalanda and Sarnath.

Besides the images installed and worshipped in Garbhagriha, the preparation of Utsavavigrahas played important role in festivals and rituals begun in the Gupta era. All these developments in archi­tecture and sculpture took place because, in the words of Romila Thapar, “Hinduism had by this time evolved from the beliefs of the Vedic period into a human and sophisticated religion.

Perhaps the most fundamental changes were the two features that arose partially out of the heterodox challenge to early Hinduism. The first of these was the tendency towards monotheism, which was stressed by the increasing worship of either of the two deities Vishnu and Siva. Then came the change in favour of personal devotion rather than sacrifice. Thus Hinduism revitalised itself and was able slowly to supplant the heterodox religions”.

This was strengthened by the codification of the Puranas and the emergence of Mahabharata and Ramayana. This change in the nature and functioning of Hinduism and Buddhism led to the making of images and a house to place them and a place to worship them, which ultimately led to the building of permanent stone structures.

Terracottas:

Terracotta tablets, plaques and seals portraying the Buddhist pantheon, Ramayana panels, and design of flora and fauna have been discovered in Harvan in Kashmir, Kosam, Ahichchatra, and Bikaner, Pawaya, Patna and several places in Maharashtra. We have every reason to believe that terracotta beads were used by ordinary people as ornaments. The Buddhist religious places were covered with a facade of terracotta plaques depicting stories about the Buddha and his times.

Coins:

Gupta coins are known for their exquisite artistic taste. Though the early Gupta coins reflect the impact of Kushans and the Greeks in their manufacture, the later Gupta coins reflect the creative and artistic perfection of the Gupta artisans and their skill in metal workmanship. Gupta artiskns made gold and silver coins with smooth and even wedges.

The figures of Hindu deities like Kartikeya or Skanda, Vishnu and Lakshmi are portrayed perfectly on the coins. They also portrayed other motifs such as chakra, the bow and the arrow, the Asvamedha horse, peacock, Garuda and spear very skilfully and perfectly. The dress and every part of the human body are also clearly visible on the coins.

Painting:

The wonderful frescoes at Bagh and Ajanta caves clearly reveal that the art of painting reached a high point during the Gupta period. The world-renowned Ajanta paintings are acclaimed by art critics throughout the world as being balanced in composition, and superb in execution.

Gupta painters successfully depicted different Rasas like Karuna or compassion, and beauty in their paintings like the “Dark Princess”, and “Bodhisattva Padmapani”. The paintings also reveal the dress and ornaments, the flora and fauna and the customs and traditions of that period. Art historians like Stella Kramrisch and Ananda Coomaraswamy acclaim the paintings of this period as masterpieces.

Religion and Philosophy:

The Gupta age was one of resurgence of modified Vedic Dharma. It incorpo­rated Bhagavatism and the worship of the Puranic gods. It was in this age that the important aspects of Hinduism like the image worship, building of temples to worship the images, growth of the Bhakti cult in the form of worship of individual gods like Siva and Vishnu along with Sakti became predominant.

The Gupta artists popularized Ekamukha and Chaturmukha Siva Lingas. Though most of the Gupta rulers were personally great devotees of Vishnu and proclaimed themselves Paramabhagavatas, they appear to be more pragmatic than dogmatic in their outlook. They never proclaimed Hinduism or in particular, Vaishnavism as their state religion but gave equal respect to other religions like Buddhism and Jainism.

Their individual faith did not influence their royal patronage; they extended patronage equally to all religions though they were responsible for the codification of the Puranas, popularizing the Mahabharata and the Ramayana as sacred texts, putting Hindu deities like Vishnu, Siva, Lakshmi and Skanda on their coins and performed the revived Aswamedha sacrifice.

Religions of Buddhism and Jainism also attracted the attention of royalty as well as commoners. The Buddhist Stupa at Saranath was rebuilt and the Buddhist scholar Vasubandhu was patronized during this period. Mahayana Buddhism was not considered hostile to Hinduism during this period as they found certain common features in both of them. Along with Buddhism, Jainism flourished in western India, south India and the Deccan.

The second Jaina council met at Valabhi in the early 6th century and it was here the Jaina canon was settled as it is today. Jainism also took roots in the Malabar region. Syrian Christian church was established in Malabar.

Mediterranean writers speak of a Syrian church in the land of Male, where pepper grows. The port of Caliana or Kalyana near Bombay is said to have had a Bishop appointed there. An important feature of the intellectual life of the Gupta times was the lively philosophical debates, among the scholars of different religious faiths. Consequent to the debates six systems of Hindu philosophy emerged to influence the intellectual thought and philosophy.

The six systems were:

(1) Nyaya or analysis,

(2) Vaiseshika or particular characteristics,

(3) Sankhya or enumeration,

(4) Yoga or application,

(5) Mimamsa or inquiry, and

(6) Vedanta or end of the Veda.

Nyaya was based on logic and it was used against the Buddhist philosophers to disprove their theories. Vaiseshika was a type of atomistic philosophy that advocates that there are separate universes of matter and soul. Sankhya is theistic in nature and tries to explain the cause of creation based on 25 principles. Yoga is a method employed to control body and mind to attain ultimate knowledge. Mimamsa believes in the ultimate validity of the Vedas. Vedanta advocates that the end of life is the union of the individual and the absolute soul after physical death.

Buddhist philosophy was based on four schools of thought:

(1) Vaibhashika,

(2) Sautrantika,

(3) Madhyamika, and

(4) Yogachara.

The first two belong to the Hinayana school and the other two to the Mahayana school. Jaina philosophy laid emphasis on the logical side during this period. The Jaina philosophers Akalanka, Pujyapada and others developed the doctrines of Svadvada and Nayavada. About the same time, the Hindu thinkers evolved a cyclic theory of time.

The cycle was called Kalpa and it was equivalent to 4,320 million years. Romila Thapar observes, “There is a curious similarity between these ideas and the idea of Millennium, as it was current in Europe and elsewhere”.

In the field of science and technology also, the Gupta age stands out. During this period careful categorization, of divergent philosophical schools was carried out. Many scientific works that have stood the test of time were produced.

Scientific knowledge of that age included medical, metallurgical, arithmetical and astronomical branches. Medical knowledge travelled to west and created interest among west Asian physicians. Copper plate charters, bronze images, the famous Mehrauli iron pillar and the beautifully executed metal coins in gold, silver and copper exhibit the metallurgical skill of the Gupta age.

The concept of zero and the use of place notation of numerals are the gifts of Indian mathematics. The famous astronomer Aryabhatta calculated the length of the solar year as 365 days and calculated T as 31,416. He advocated that the earth was a sphere rotating on its own axis revolving around the sun.

He also explained that the shadow of the earth falling on the moon caused eclipses. Many scholars are of the opinion that by the time of the Guptas, the mathe­matical knowledge of the Indians was far superior to that of their contemporaries in other nations. They developed a clear concept of the abstract number distinct from numerical quantity.

Indians devised a simple algebra that enabled one to do complicated calculation compared to the Greeks. It is to the credit of the Indians that they devised nine digits and a zero with a place of notation for the tens and the hundreds. The decimal system was the legacy of the Indians and the Arabs who learnt it from the Indians passed it on to Europe and called it Hindisat or Indian art.

Aryabhatiaya, the work of Aryabhatta belonged to AD 499. Another great astronomer mathematician of this time was Bhaskara, who wrote Siddhanta Siromani, in four parts:

(1) Lilavati

(2) Bijaganita

(3) Grahaganita and

(4) Goladyctya.

Lilavati deals with geometry and arithmetic. Kamakutuhak a manual of astronomical calculation, which is used even today, is his work. Varahamihira’s, Brihatsamhita is another great work in astrology of this period.  There is a view that Varahamihira’s Panchasiddhantika reflects a close knowledge of Greek astronomy. Interestingly, religion and commerce in the early history of India were responsible for spreading Indian culture and way of life beyond the shores of India.

Among the religions of India, Buddhism took initiative to introduce Indian culture into various parts of Asia, where it was patronized by the ruling elite and the rich merchants. The evidence at the site of Bamiyan conclusively proves that Afghanistan had cultured contacts with India. Buddhism, which travelled to China, was made a state religion in AD 379, when the Guptas were ruling India.

Gupta age saw the revival of Vedic Dharma in a modified form of Hinduism of today. This phenomenon made the Chinese Buddhist pilgrims Fahien, Hiuen Tsang and Itsing to come to India between AD 400 to 700 due to which we find both countries developing trade and cultural contacts.

Further, the demands of trade made Indians develop trading contracts with South-East Asia. Indians preferred South-East Asia because it was rich in gold, spices and scented resins and wood. Slowly and gradually, trade led to the growth of colonies. Conse­quently, Indian influence penetrated peacefully into the regions of Thailand, Cambodia and Java. Chinese annals mention Funan (the Mekong Delta) as the first sphere of activity of Indians. There were small settlements in the Malay Peninsula, which was closely connected with the east maritime trading centres of India.

Ships sailed to Burma, Martaban and Indonesia from Amaravati and Tamralipti. Both the south coast and west coast had trade with Tennassrim, Troy and the straits of Malacca and Java. However, initially it was Buddhism that went beyond India and influenced China and central Asia, in later days, Hinduism influenced the South-East Asian countries. In the countries where the Brahmanical religion travelled, we find the strong impact of those elements in all spheres of activity.

A popular perception prevails that the Gupta age was classical or a golden age. However, some historians question this description of the Gupta age and a heated debate is going on the subject. There is also a view that as history is a process, there cannot be either dark ages or golden ages. Leaving the debate to scholars, we may agree that in the cultural sphere the Gupta age is remarkable yet, not so in the economic and social spheres.