Bengal under the Palas and the Senas

Bengal under the Palas and the Senas!

Matsya-nyaya in Bengal:

The political condition of Bengal after the death of Sasanka was one of disorder and confusion.

Hiuen T-Sang came to visit Bengal immediately after death of Sasanka and he found Bengal divided into five principalities, namely, Kajangal, Pundravardhana, Karnasurvarna, Samatata and Tamralipti. Utkal and Kangod although had been parts of Bengal had become inde­pendent.

In Manjusreemulakalpa there is a clear reference to the total dis­ruption in Bengal after the death of Sasanka. Manab, son of Sasanka, ruled over Bengal for eight months five days and rulers who arose in different parts of Bengal likewise ruled for very short time. Taking advantage of the situation Bhaskarvarman of Kamrup conquered Gauda and Harshavardhana conquered Utkal and Kangod. When Harshavardhana was camping at Kajangal near Rajmahal, Bhaskar­varman came to see him with twenty thousand war elephants and thirty thousand warships.

The kingdom of Bengal was broken up in this manner soon after the death of Sasanka. After Harshavardhana’s death Bengal was being invaded by neighbouring kings repeatedly. The king of Tibet, the later Guptas, the kings of the Saila dynasty, Yasovarman of Kanauj, Harshadeva of Assam, and Lalitaditya of Kashmir invaded Bengal one after another. Vatsyaraj of Gurjara also invaded Bengal.

The conquest of Bengal by Yasovarman of Kanauj was the sub­ject-matter of his Gaudabaho written by Bakpatiraj, the court poet of Kanauj. Yasovarman had also conquered the kingdom of Vanga, that is, northern and eastern Bengal. Of course Yasovarman’s authority in these areas was very short-lived.

It is needless to stress that due to internal disorder and external aggression condition in Bengal became desperate. The small local rulers were mutually at war, the stronger was oppressing the weaker, and the more powerful was attacking the less powerful. There was veritable matsya-nyaya, that is, the logic of the fishes prevailing in Bengal.

As the larger fish devours the smaller ones so the more powerful or bigger local lord was occupying the territories of the smaller and the weaker ones. In­ternecine conflicts, lack of law and order made the condition of the common people unbearable. In this intolerable circumstance the lead­ing persons of Bengal met and by common consent placed one named Gopal on the throne of Bengal in (Cir.) 750 A.D.

The Palas:

Gopala Cir. 750-770 A.D.:

The establishment of the Pala rule in Bengal during the middle of the eighth century A.D. was landmark in the history of Bengal. From that time it is possible to write the complete history of Bengal on the basis of historical materials.

By electing Gapala to the throne of Bengal the leading persons of Bengal of that time had given proof of their sense of nationalism and patriotism. By placing a capable man like Gopala on the throne of Bengal they gave proofs of their far-sightedness, self-lessness and their solicitousness for the well-being of the people of the country.

Gopala ascended the throne of Bengal with the good will and the willing allegiance of the people of Bengal. Although we know of his father Bapyat and grand-father Dayitvshnu from his inscription, yet the manner in which reference has been made to them raises the presump­tion that they were commoners.

Gopala’s first task was the removal of lawlessness and disorder from the country which he did without delay and thereby fulfilled the expectation of the people of Bengal. His reign was occupied largely by war for bringing about peace and to ward off foreign invasions.

His efforts were crowned with success and Bengal enjoyed a period of peace and prosperity under him. He founded the Pala dynasty of Bengal. Although much is not known about his reign, it is believed that he brought whole of Bengal under his sway. The exact length of his reign is also not definitely known.

Dharmapala Cir. 770-810 A.D.:

Dharmapala, the second ruler of the Pala dynasty, was the real founder of the power and supremacy of the Palas. He came to the throne about 770 A.D. and during his long reign of thirty-two years he made Bengal the most powerful state in northern India.

Soon after his accession Dharmapala launched upon a career of conquest of Aryavarta in order to establish an empire there. But the Vatsyaraj, king of the Gurjara-Pratiharas, had become so power­ful that it did not become easy for Dharmapala to establish an un­questioned mastery over Aryavarta.

When Dharmapala proceeded towards Aryavarta, Vatsyaraja also advanced with his army towards Aryavarta. In the engagement between the two, Dharmapala was defeated. At this point of time Druba, the Rashtrakuta king of the south, also proceeded to establish his sway over Aryavarta and defeat­ed Vatsyaraja completely. Vatsyaraja had to flee for his life.

When Dhruba and Vatsyaraja were engaged in war, Dharmapala con­quered Magadha, Varanasi, and Prayag. After defeating Vatsyaraja Dhruba proceeded against Dharmapala and defeated him. This defeat, however, did not mean any loss of territory to Dharmapala. Soon after when Dhruba left for the Deccan, Dharmapala found his opportunity to conquer Aryavarta. He waged a number of wars but no details of these wars have been found.

The Tibetan historian Taranath has specifically mentioned that the empire of Dharmapala extended from the Bay of Bengal in the north to Delhi, Jullundhar, and to Vindhyas to the south. Dharma­pala had deposed Indrayudh from the throne of Kanauj and placed his own nominee Chakrayudh on it.

From the Khalimpur inscrip­tion of Dharmapala it is known that he had summoned a Durbar at Kanauj which was attended by kings of Bhoja, Matsya, Madra, Kuru, Jadu, Yavana, Avanti, Gandhara, Kira, etc. who endorsed his setting up of Chakrayudh to the throne of Kanauj. This arrangement, how­ever, did not last long. Indrayudh with the help of the Gujara King Nagabhatta II defeated Chakrayudh and Dharmapala and recovered Kanauj.

Dharmapala took the title of Paramabhattaraka Maharajadhiraja which was significant of his sovereign status. He set up his capital at Pataliputra and thereby revived its past glory. Dharmapala did not abide his time in warfare only; he did much for the Buddhist religion and higher education.

He caused the construction of the Vikramsila Mahavira which had 107 temples and 6 colleges within it. As many as 144 professors taught different subjects in these colleges. Although a patron of Buddhism, Dharmapala was respectful towards other reli­gions. He donated lands for the construction of Hindu temples. Garga, a Hindu Brahmin, was his minister.

He did not allow his religious belief to overcloud his judgement. From the Khalimpur inscription we know that Dharmapala ruled for long 32 years, but Taranath the Tibetan historian puts his years of reign as 60 years. Taranath’s statement is not acceptable to modern historians.

Devapala, Cir. 810-850 A.D.:

The third king of the line, Devapala is regarded as the most powerful of all the kings of the Pala dynasty. His General Lausena or Labasena is said to have conquered Assam and Kalinga. During his reign there was recrudescence of war with the Gurjara-Pratitaras and the Dravidas. Bhoja I, the Gurjara king, defeated Devapala in a battle.

He on the other hand defeated the Rashtrakuta king, Amoghavarsha, in an engagement. The Court poet of Devapala called him the lord of whole land from the Hima­layas to Kanyakumarika. But this was indeed an exaggeration of the Court panegyrist. For, from an inscription of his reign, we come to know that Devapala’s empire extended from Kamboj in the north to the Vindhyas in the south.

That he had relations with the north-west Indian rulers is doubt­less. He appointed one named Vira Sena Saba, a Brahmin of that area, to a high post under him. The fame of Devapala had spread outside India and spread to Sumatra, Java, Malaya, etc. Balaputradeva, king of Sumatra, sent an ambassador to Devapala’s court to ask for five villages at Nalanda for the use of the Buddhist monks who could come to Nalanda University for studies.

Devapala granted this request. The fame of the Nalanda University during the reign of Devapala had spread far and wide and due to the patronage of Deva­pala Nalanda became a centre for the study of Buddhist religion and culture. Devapala appointed Indradeva, a great teacher and scholar in Buddhism, as the Chancellor of the Nalanda University.

Like other kings of the Pala dynasty, Devapala was a Buddhist. Due to his patronage, Buddhism which was decaying in northern India saw a period of revival.

Devapala was a patron of art and architecture. He caused the repair of the Buddhist monasteries at Magadha. He also caused the construction of several monasteries at Nalanda and a very large temple at Bodhgaya. He was very much respectful towards education and educated persons. His court was adorned by the Buddhist pundits of various countries. Devapala built a new capital for his empire at Monghyr.

Pala Kings after Devapala:

After Devapala the power and glory of the Pala empire did not last. The latter Pala emperors like Vigrahapala, Narayanpala, Rajyapala, Gopala II, and Vigrahapala II were as weak as worthless. As a result under their rule the Pala Empire was fast moving towards its fall.

After Devapala, his nephew Vigrahapala, became the king. Vigrahapala was the son of Bakpala, brother of Devapala. As Vigrahapala was given more to the pursuit of religious activities than to administration of the country, there ensued looseness in adminis­tration. Ultimately Vigrahapala abdicated his throne in favour of his son, Narayanpala, and gave himself fully up to religious activities.

During the reign of Vigrahapala and the early years of the reign of Narayanpala some places of the Gupta Empire had fallen off from the empire. According to some, Narayanpala ultimately succeeded in recovering all the lost places. Narayanpala was peace-loving and weak-kneed like his father and in fact, during the rule of Vigrahapala and Narayanpala extending for nearly half a century the Pala Empire was broken up into pieces due to internal, disruption and external at­tacks.

A large part of the Pala Empire was occupied by outsiders. During the life time of Devapala the Rashtrakuta and Pratihara kings who came to invade Bengal were defeated but during Narayanpala’s rule the Pala Empire had not the strength or determination to ward off the attacks of those two powerful houses.

In the inscription of Amoghavarsha it is mentioned that Anga, Vanga, and Magdha accepted his (Amogavarsha’s) overlordship. From this it may be inferred that the Pala king was defeated at his hands. The Pratihar King Bhoja defeated Narayanpala with the help of Kalachuri and Guhilat kings.

The Pala kings who succeeded Narayanpala such as Rajyapala (Cir. 908-940), Gapala II (Or. 943-960), Vigrahapala II (960-988) were very weak and worthless, taking advantage of which a hill tribe known as Kambojas attacked the Pala dominions. The details of the Kamboja attack are to be found in the Dinajpur pillar inscription.

Wherefrom the Kambojas had come is not known for certain. How­ever, towards the end of the tenth century A.D. the Pala Empire reach­ed its lowest ebb. The ninth Pala king, Mahipala, drove out the Kambojas and recovered some of the lost possessions of the Pala Em­pire.

The Second or the Revived Pala Empire:

Mahipala I:

The greatest achievement of Mahipala was the ex­pulsion of the Kambojas and revival of the Pala Empire. When he ascended the throne, Chandra dynasty was ruling in East Bengal and Sur dynasty was ruling in West Bengal. From the inscriptions found on the bases of the Vishnu image discovered Baghaura and Ganesh image found at Narayanpur, in Comilla, it is known that Mahipala occupied East Bengal within two-three years of his accession.

The North and West Bengal also came under his possession. Among the Sur kings of West Bengal, the Adisur famous in folk tales is specially important. On his accession to the throne Mahipala conquered the whole of Magadha, he also conquered Tirabhukti. His empire ex­tended from Varanasi and Mithila to East Bengal.

Mahipala was a patron of Buddhism. In the eleventh year of his reign a large Buddhist temple was caused to be constructed by him at Nalanda. Some Buddhist temples were reconstructed by Mahipala’s relations Sthirapala and Basantapala. During his reign the architecture of Bengal took a new turn in style.

Towards the end of the reign of Mahipala Chedi King Gangeyadeva attacked Mahipala’s empire and conquered Tirabhukti. Besides, Rajendra Chola I, king of the Chola kingdom of distant south, came through Orissa, entered Bengal and defeated Mahipala in 1023 A.D.

Pala Kings after Mahipala:

After the death of Mahipala I the revived Pala empire was hastening to its fall, His son Nayapala (Cir. 1038-1054), his grandson Vigrahapala III (Cir. 1054-1072) and the latter’s son Mahipala II had not the ability to defend the revived Pala empire. Taking advantage of this increasing weakness of the Pala rulers a Chasi-Kaivarta rebellion took place during the reign of Mahipala II.

The Chasi-Kaivartas who came from North Bengal rose in rebellion under their leader Dibyok who killed Mahipala and made himself predominant in North Bengal. In folk tales Bidyok or Dibbya was represented as a saint and a patriot. It is said that he saved North Bengal from the oppressive rule of Mahipala II.

But in Rama Charit there is no reference to such exploit of Dibyok. In absence of dependable historical materials, it is difficult, according to most of the historians, to regard Dibyok as a saint and a patriot. After Dibyok, his brother Rudrak arid after Rudrak his son Bhim be­came the ruler of North Bengal.

Under Bhim North Bengal, i.e., Barendra became a powerful and prosperous kingdom. There is men­tion of Bhim in Rama Charit. The Kaivarta pillar at Dinajpur even today stands as a monument of the Kaivarta rule in North Bengal.

After the death of Mahipala II his two younger brothers, Surapala and Ramapala, fled from the prison where they were kept confined by their elder brother Mahipala. They went to Magadha and began to rule there as independent rulers. Magadha was presumbly part of Bengal then. First Surapala and then Ramapala ruled there.

Ramapala defeated Bhim and recovered North Bengal. In order to enlist the support of the people of the country behind him Ramapala reduced the taxes on the people and made improvement in agriculture. He set up a new capital called Ramabati near, perhaps near, Malda and began to make efforts for reviving the greatness of the Pala Empire.

The King Dharmaraja of East Bengal and king of Kamrupa accepted the overlordship of Ramapala. He deposed the Utkal King Karnaraj after signally defeating him. This involved him in prolonged warfare with Anantavarma Chodaganga. From Ramacharit it is known that Ramapala conquered Anga and succeeded in defending his kingdom against the attack of the Chalukyas.

After a long reign of 42 years Ramapala died after giving cohesion to the disrupted Pala Empire of Bengal. By good government and strong administiation the lost glory of Bengal was revived under Ramapala, only to be lost during the weak rule of his successors. Vijaysena seized power from the Palas taking advantage of their weakness.

The Senas:

Samanta Sen: Hemanta Sen:

In the middle of the eleventh century two brothers, Samanta Sen and Hemanta Sen established a small kingdom at Kasipuri. Kasipuri is believed to be the present Kasiari in the Mayurbhanj district. The Senas are supposed to have come from Karnataka in the south. The Senas were originally feu­datories of the Palas but when the Palas had become very weak after Ramapala Vijay Sen, grandson of Samanta Sen, dislodged the Palas from power and seized the throne of Bengal. From that time the Senas acquired an independent status and gradually began to increase their power and territory.

Vijay Sen, Cir. 1095-1158:

Vijay Sen was the first independent and powerful king of the Sen Dynasty. How he had defeated the local kings of Radha, the Varma dynasty of East Bengal and the Palas of North Bengal is not known. He was, however, not content with defeating the Palas, he after having conquered major part of Bengal launched upon a career of conquest of North Bihar, Orissa and Assam.

It is learnt from Vallal Sen Charit written by Ananda, that Vijay Sen entered into a friendly alliance with Chodganga, king of Kalinga. He married Bilasdevi, the daughter of the King of South Radha, which enhanced his power and prestige considerably. Vijay Sen defeated the Yadava dynasty of East Bengal and set up a capital Vijaypur there.

Much of the time of Vijay Sen’s reign was consumed in war­fare. From the Deopara inscription it is learnt that Vijay Sen defeated Naya, Vira, Raghava, Bardhana and other local rulers as also the kings of Gauda, Kalinga and Kamrupa.

During the long reign of Vijay Sen law and order, peace and prosperity returned to Bengal. From the panegyric of Umapatidhar the achievements of Vijay Sena have been known in details. Vijay Sena saved the people of Bengal from the prevalent disorder that became widespread in the wake of the end of the Pala rule.

Vijay Sen was an intrepid soldier, a tactful military general, and a good administra­tor. He assumed titles like Prameswara Parama bhattaraka, Mahadhiraj, Arirajbrishavashankar, etc. which denoted his imperial status. He died after a long reign of sixty (forty according to some) and was succeeded by his son Vallal Sen.

Vallal Sen, Cir. 1158-1179 A.D.:

Vallal Sen, son and successor of Vijay Sen, was more interested in internal regeneration and reconstruction than external conquests. Whether he had gone on any mili­tary expedition is not known for certain, but during his reign his kingdom was completely secure from external attack. Like his father he also adopted title like Ariraj Nishankar Sankar significant of his imperial status.

Vallal Sen is famous for introducing Kulinism with a view to reorganising the Hindu Society. Kulinism was introduced among three upper classes of the society, namely, the Brahmins, the Vaidyas and the Kayasthas. These three classes had to follow cer­tain rules of conduct in social behaviour, marriage, etc.

This was done in order to enhance the sense of honesty, justice, sanctity of caste and similar other virtues. Later on the system of Kulinism lost its real purpose and became a corrupt oppressive system. According to tradition Bengal was divided into five parts under Vallal Sen, name­ly, Vanga, Barendra, Radha, Bagdi and Mithila.

Vallal Sen was a patron of Tantrik Hinduism and he sent prea­chers to Magadha, Chittagong, Orissa, Arakan and Nepal for preach­ing this religion. He was also a patron of learning. He himself was the author of two important books named Danasagara and Adbhutsagara. The latter book he could not complete which was done by his son Lakshman Sen.

Lakshman Sen, Cir. 1179-1205 A.D.:

Lakshman Sen succeeded his father Vallal Sen. According to Mihaj-ud-din; Lakshman Sen was about sixty years old at that time. His capital was at Nadia. He also assumed the title of Ariraja Madan Shankar and also called him Gaudeswar. But in royal rescripts he unlike his predecessors called him Parama Vaishnava Parama Narasinha instead of Parama Maheswara.

It becomes clear from all this that Lakshman Sen was a Vaishnava. This is also proved from his inviting Jaydeva, the devout Vaishnava to his court Lakshman Sen conquered Gaya and Mithila and included south-west Bihar in his dominion. He waged war against the king of Garhwal Govinda Chandra and in this con­nection he marched with his army right upto Varanasi and Allahabad.

Lakshman Sen earned fame both as a conqueror and a patron of learning and was comparable to his father in this respect. Court poet Saran and Umapatidhar made reference to a great conqueror without naming him. This was none else than Lakshman Sen himself. Jaydeva, the author of Geet Govinda, Dhoyi, author of Pabanaduta, poet Saran and philosopher Halayudh graced the court of Lakshman Sen.

Lakshman Sen completed the unfinished work of his father named Adbhut Sagar. Some of the slokas included in the Sanskrit book Sadukti Karnamrita were composed by Lakshman Sen, his father and grandfather.

Towards the end of the twelfth century Ikhtiyar-ud-din Mohammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji was entrusted by Kutbuddin Aibak to conquer Bengal and Bihar. Ikhtiyar-ud-din made a sudden attack on the Capital of Lakshman Sen who being incapable of defending himself against this sudden attack he left Nadia for East Bengal where he and his successors ruled as independent kings for some time more.

Minhaj-ud-din described Lakshman Sen as a very powerful Roe, i.e., king. In his Tabakat-i-Nasiri Minhaj has related a story about the conquest of Nadia, capital of Lakshman Sen by Ikhtiyar-ud-din Mohammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji. It is said that when Lakshman Sen came to know of the conquest of Bihar by Ikhtiyar-ud-din, his minis­ters advised him to leave Nadia.

But Lakshman Sen did not listen to the cowardly advice of his ministers. Many of his ministers and well-to-do subjects, businessmen left for East Bengal, Assam, etc. One day at noon when Lakshman Sen was taking his meal Ikhtiyar- ud-din with eighteen horsemen appeared before the gates of the royal palace of Nadia.

His main contingent was following him but fell behind as they could not keep pace with Ikhtiyar-ud-din. As Ikhtiyar- ud-din took Lakshman Sen by surprise, the latter finding resistance impossible left the palace through the backdoor for East Bengal. The modern historians do not take this story of Mihaj in its face value.

For it is unthinkable that Lakshman Sen would not make any prepara­tion for the defence of his capital even after coming to know of the con­quest of Bihar by Ikhtiyar-ud-din. Even if Minhaj’s story is taken as true, the fact that Lakshman Sen continued to live in Nadia even after the advice of his ministers to leave and actual leaving of Nadia by many of the ministers and businessmen, shows the determination and sense of patriotism of Lakshman Sen.

He was surprised by Ikhtiyar- ud-din and finding defence impossible in the circumstance, he left Nadia. Minhaj has been fair in characterising Lakshman Sen whom he called not only a powerful king but also a liberal and kind-hearted ruler. It may be mentioned here that Nabin Chandra Sen, Dwijeridra- lal Roy have not properly characterised Lakshman Sen in their works. They have done an injustice to him by calling him a cowardly king.

Administration, Society, Economic Condition, Cul­ture under the Palas and the Senas:

The long reign of four hundred years of the Palas in Bengal is in itself significant, for seldom a dynasty had such a long lease of life. From the historical materials at our disposal it is not possible to reconstruct a full history of the Pala administration, but it may be reasonably presumed that a long reign of four hundred years must have led to the evolution of a highly developed administrative system.

From the contemporary inscriptions, grants, literature, etc., it has been possible to draw a general picture of the Pala administration.

The administration was divided into two parts, the Central and Provincial:

(i) Central:

At the head of the Central Government, for the matter of that of the state was the king. The Pala kings in imitation of the Gupta rulers assumed high sounding titles like Parameswara, Paramabhattaraka, Maharajadhiraja, etc. Appointment of Prime Minister by the Pala kings was an innovation for here to before no Indian king had appointed Prime Minister.

The post of the Prime Minister later on became hereditary. In the Badal inscription details of the powers of the king and the Prime Minister have been given. In the Pala Central administration there was the system of appointing a various grades and types of officers.

Among these officers reference has been found in the Pala royal grants and inscriptions of Amatyas, Angarakshas, Baladhakshyas, Chauradharanikas, Dandikas, Dandasaktis, Dasgramikas, Dutas, Gramapatis, Jyesthakayasthas, Kottapalas, Mahapratiharas, Mahasandhibigrahikas, Senapati or Mahasenapati, Naukadhakshyas, Prantapalas, Rajasthaniyas, Uparikas, Vishayapatis, etc.

The responsibility of administration lay on the king and the offi­cers directly under him. Rajputra, Prime Minister, Mahasandhibigrahika, Rajamatya, Mahakumaramatya, Duta, etc., were such officers. Rajasthaniyas, i.e., the Viceroy or the Regent used to carry on with the work of administration in absence of the king. Angaraksha was the head of the royal bodyguards. The Adhakshyas referred to in Kautilya’s Arthasastra were also appointed during the Pala time. The royal elephant and cavalry corps were under their charge.

The charge of the revenue department was in the hands of Vishayapati, Uparika, Dasgramika, Gramapati, etc. Bhaga, Bhoga, Kara, Hiranya, extra-cess etc. were different kinds of revenue that the state earned. Reference to all this is to be found in the contempo­rary royal grants, gift of lands, etc. Revenue used to be collected through officers in charge of different areas. The officer called Bhogapati perhaps realised the tax called Bhoga.

Sastha Adhikrita was the officer who realised one-sixth of the produce of the land. The royal revenue was also derived from tax for keeping villages safe from thieves and robbers, customs duties, ferry toll, fines and forfeitures. Public accounts were checked by Maha-akshapatalika and Jyestha- kayastha. Mahadandanyaka was in charge of the judiciary. There were different grades of judicial officers under him.

Senapati or Mahasenapati was the highest General of the Army. The army consisted of infantry, cavalry, elephant corps, and carnal corps. The navy was an important part of the Pala military system. The outlying provinces were under the charge of Wardens of the Marches. Kottapal was in charge of the fortresses. Mahapratihar, Dandika, Dandapasika were in charge of the police force. The existence of a class of officials called Khola raises the presumption that the Palas engaged secret police, i.e., spies for collecting secret information.

Provincial Administration:

Under the Palas Bengal, Bihar and Assam were under the direct rule of the Pala kings. For administra­tive convenience these areas were divided into Bhuktis, Vishayas, Mandals and Patakas. In the royal grants, inscriptions and literature of the Pala time, we have reference to Pundravardhana Bhukti, Danda Bhukti and Bardhaman Bhukti into which Bengal was divided; Bihar was divided into Nagara Bhukti and Tira Bhukti and Assam into Pragjyotishpur Bhukti. The Bhuktis or provinces were divided into Vishayas, that is, districts and Vishayas into Mandalas. The Mandahs were subdivided into Patakas. The details about the administration of these different divisions and subdivisions are not known to us.

With the extension of the Pala Empire a new type of local ad­ministration was also functioning. The conquered territories were al­lowed to be ruled over by their original rulers as Samanta, i.e., feuda­tories called Rajan, Rajanyak, Ranak, Samanta, Mahasamanta, etc. These feudatories were under the fullest control of the Pala kings so long as the central administration was strong. But as soon as weak kings began to ascend the throne at the centre many of them became independent. This apart, some of the feudatories, such as Iswar Ghosh, was so powerful that they ruled in practical independence of the Palas.

It goes without saying that the Palas had developed an efficient administrative system. It may, however, be mentioned that much of the Pala administration was a copy of the Gupta administration. The administrative system detailed in Kautilya’s Arthasastra is also found to have much influence on the Pala administration.

The efficiency of the Pala administration reflected itself in the economic prosperity and culture of that period. The cultural progress which is possible under a life of peace, prosperity and contentment had been ensured under the Palas. The Palas were not only mindful of political, economic and social progress of the country, but also for the development of morality, religion and culture.

Patronage of the University of Nalanda, of a large number of poets, men of letters, etc. establishment of monasteries for the Buddhists were proofs of their liberality of mind. The Pala kings were tolerant of others’ religions. Most of the Pala kings were Buddhists but they appointed Brahmins as their Prime Ministers as a rule. The general contentment, peace and prosperity of Bengal under the Palas were the results of their solicitousness for the well-being of their subjects.

(ii) Administration under the Senas:

Under the Senas, generally speaking, the Pala system of administration was continued. Bhuktis, Vishayas, Mandals, etc. continued to be administrative divisions even under the Senas. Patakas and Chaturakas are names of smallest administrative divisions which appear repeatedly in the inscriptions and literature of the Sena times.

This raises the presumption that under the Senas the small administrative divisions like Patakas and Chaturakasa acquired more importance. Among the royal officers Bhuktipati, Mandalpati, Vishayapati occur repeatedly. The Prime Minister of the Palas was now called Mahamantri. The Sena kings used to adopt tides like Aswapati, Narapati, Rajaprayadhapati, etc.

There are evidences of the Sena kings making grants of lands to their Queen or Rajmahishi. The Purohitas and Mahapurohitas were also given land by formal grants which prove that the Purohitas or Mahapurohitas had acquired much respect and impor­tance. The Sandhivigrahika of the Palas took the name of Mahasandhivigrahika under the Senas.

These apart, Mahamudradhkrita, Mahasarbadhkrita were new officers appointed by the Sena kings. Likewise the highest judge was called Mahadharmadhyakshya. The military officers also took new names under the Senas. Mention may be made of Mahapilupati, Mahaganastha, Mahabyutpati in this connection.

In the copper plate of Iswar Ghosh there is reference to twenty-nine classes of officers under the Senas. In no other time in independent Bengal there were so many different classes or grades of officers. But it must be mentioned that the main structure of the administration of the Palas remained unaltered under the Senas, al­though changes were effected in detail.

The class of officers called Pradeshtris mentioned in Kautilya were also appointed during the Sena period. This shows that the traditional Hindu administrative system, that is, the system detailed in Kautilya’s Arthasastra had a deep influence on the Sena administration.

Lastly, it has to be mentioned that in the history of Bengal the period of the Sena rule was also one of peace and prosperity. The peace and contentment that led to the cultural activities during the Pala period continued even under the Senas and the Sena period is also a memorable age in the history of Bengal. In politics, religion, economy, society there was an all-round improvement under the Senas.

Society and Culture under the Palas and the Senas:

That poli­tically the PalaAge constituted a glorious chapter of the history of Bengal, nay of India, is agreed on all hands. Not only political field but also in social, economic, literary and cultural activities this period registered a great development. Under the Senas, the political supre­macy of Bengal had been somewhat diminished but in social and cul­tural development this period also was almost equally great.

Social Conditions:

Hiuen T-Sang describing the prosperity of Bengal and the social habits of the Bengalees one century before the rise of the Palas, was full of praise about the character, courage, honesty and culture of the Bengalees. Hiuen T-Sang was specially pleased at the amiability and love of education among the Bengalees.

From the literary sources of the time of the Pala and the Sena rule we come to know that characteristics noted by the Chinese traveler were all present among the Bengalees during the Pala and the Sena rule. From the literary sources we come to know that the Bengalees of the Pala-Sena period were unostentatious, easy-going and simple in their daily life and living.

In Sandhyakar Nandi’s Ramcharit it is mentioned that society had persons who were living a highly moral life and others who were given to debauchery. This is borne out in the writings of Vatsayana. The Sena King Vallal Sen had introduced Kulinism among the Brahmins, Vaidyas and Kayasthas in order to maintain the racial purity of these sections of the society.

From this it is presum­ed that conservatism in caste system must have prevailed at that time and marriage between different castes was not permissible. The society then was divided mainly into Brahmins, Baidyas, Kayasthas and Sudras.

Position of women was very high in society. Holding women in high respect was the traditional aspect of the Hindu culture. The praise of the women of the Pala and the Sena period is found in con­temporary literature.

The Bengalees partook of food as they do at the present day. Rice, pulses, vegetables, fish, meat, ghee, curd, milk and various preparations from rice used to be taken by them. Sugar and molasses used to be produced in large quantities in Bengal at that time.

In matter of dresses there was no ostentation. The males used dhoti and chaddar as their dress while women used sari. Bodices and a small orna were also used. Sandal paste and camphor were used as perfumes by women. Wooden sandales and sandles made of hides were used by men.

Both the males and the females used to wear ornaments made of gold and silver. Kundala, keyur, bangles, neck-laces, mekhala, rings, nose-studs, anklets, etc., were the ornaments of the time. Ladies of the rich families wore ornaments with jewels-set on them. Married women used vermilion on their forehead.

In social and religious functions dance, songs, music, etc., were a must. There were various religious rites performed all throughout the year as is done today. Games of various types, chess, etc., were the pastimes of the people.

Bullock cart, horse, elephant, palanquin, boats, etc., provided the means of transport at that time. The women of the rich families used to travel in boats and palanquins.

Economic Condition:

During the Pala and the Sena period the Bengalees lived in villages. Agriculture was the very basis of the economic life of the people. Small industries and cottage industries as well as trade and commerce also were highly developed. While the men engaged in trade and commerce used to live in cities the women of the family would live in villages.

People living in towns did so for earning livelihood. Although by far the largest number of the population lived in villages there was no dearth of towns and cities which were wealthy and a large section of the population of such towns and cities were well-to-do financially. The towns and cities had wide roads on both sides of which stood buildings.

The royal palace would have a golden pitcher at the top of the building. In Ramcharit by Sandhyakar Nandi there is a nice description of the Pala capital Ramabati which was studded with temples, stupas, monasteries, gardens, ponds and swimming pools, etc. Trees and creepers of various kinds added to the beauty of the capital city. It was not a speciality for Ramabati. Every town and city had similar decorative trees, ponds and gardens.

During the Pala-Sena period Bengal was famous for small and cottage industrial products. These were exported to Ceylon, Burma, Champa, Cambodia, Java, Siam, Sumatra, China, etc., through the ports of Tamralipti and Saptagram. Bengal had also trade relations with other parts of India and caravans used to travel upto Tibet, Nepal and Central Asian countries by land.

Fine cotton cloth produced in Ben­gal used to be exported to the countries of East and West at that time. In the account of an Arabian merchant Khordadbaha we find how a dhoti made of finest cotton yarn in Bengal could be passed through a finger ring. From Suleiman, the Arab merchant, we come to know that Bengal used to export horns of rhinoceros to China. In Abhidhan Rantnamala there is a reference that tin used to be raised from tin mines in Bengal.

From the above description it becomes clear that under the Pala- Sena period agriculture, small and cottage industries, trade and com­merce flourished to a great degree in Bengal.

Literature and Culture:

Under the Palas and the Senas there was an unprecedented development in literature and culture in Ben­gal. Apart from political supremacy established by the Palas and the Senas, their rule constituted a gloriouschapter in the history of litera­ture and culture in the history of Bengal and for the matter of that in the history of India.

Literature:

Under the Palas and the Senas an unprecedented expression of the Bengali intellect and talent could be seen. The edu­cation and literary development during this period was the result of patronage of the Pala and the Sena kings. Vedas, Dharmasastras, Puranas, Ramayana, Mahabharata, Mathematics, Economics, Ayurveda, Grammar, Astrology, etc., were vastly read by both men and women.

It was under the Palas that many Dohas and folk songs called by the name of Charyapada were composed. Lui Pa and Kanha Pa were the most celebrated of the composers of the Doha and songs called Charya­pada. These were the original form of the Bengali language. Sandhyakar Nandi’s Ramacharit, Gauda Abhinanda’s Kadambari Kathasagar, and Halayudh’s Abhidhan Ratnamala were written during this period.

The author of Chikitsa Sangraha, Chakrapani Datta, was the greatest authority in Ayurvedasastra of that age. Srikar was one of the great­est authors of Smritisastra of the period. Jimutabahana, Sridharabhatta enriched this period by their works. Sena King Vallal Sen wrote two books Dansagara and Adbhutsagara. Under the patro­nage of the Sena art and literature in Bengal had registered a mark­ed development. The famous poet Jaydev, author of Geetagovinda, Dhoyi, author of Pavanaduta, poet Umapatidhar, etc., flourished dur­ing the Sena rule.

Education:

Gopala, founder of the Pala dynasty, constructed the Odantapuri Mahavihara. The Buddhist Philosopher Santi Rakshit enjoyed the patronage of Gopala. He was the greatest exponent of Tantrikism. During the reign of Gapala’s son Dharmapala as many as fifty Buddhist monasteries were built. Buddhist philosopher Haribhadra used to teach Buddhist philosophy in these monasteries.

One of the greatest achievements of Dharmapala was the establishment of the Vikramsila Mahavihara on the Ganges near Patharghata in Bhagalpur district. There were 107 temples and 6 colleges in this Mahavihara and Buddhajnanpada was the Chancellor of this Univer­sity or Mahavihara. Prasasta Mitra, Buddhasakti, Buddhajnanpada, Rahulabhdra and other Buddhist philosophers taught Tantrik Bud­dhism in the colleges of this University.

Kamalsila was the greatest annotator of the Mahavihara. Kalyan Rakshit, Prabhakar, Purnavardhan, etc., were the professors who taught Nyaya in the University and there were other professors who taught grammar, logic, and various other subjects. There were altogether 108 professors engaged in teaching different subjects in the Vikramsila University.

The students had not to spend anything for their residence, food or tuition; on the contrary they were paid some pocket money to meet their sundry expenses. Those of the students who could show proficiency in the subject of their study would be conferred diploma. Students from different parts of India, Tibet and other countries used to come to Vikramsila for study.

Many Sanskrit books were translated into Tibetan in this Mahavihara. Dipankar Srijnan was a professor in Vikramsila. Under Devapala another Vihara known as Sompuri Vihara was constructed. The ruins of this University have been dis­covered in the Paharpur area of Rajshahi district Pala King Deva­pala was also responsible for the establishment of a monastery known as Traikutaka monastry.

It was a centre for the study of Buddhism. During the Pala rule the Nalanda University again became famous as a seat of learning and scholars from far and wide used to come to this university for study. The ruler of Sumatra Balaputradeva of the Sailendra dynasty sent an emissary to Devapala asking for the grant of five villages in the vicinity of Nalanda for the residence of the scholars from Sumatra. Balaputradeva’s request was complied with. Devapala himself had constructed a monastery at Nalanda. He was a great patron of learning and the learned men.

Art, Architecture and Sculpture:

Under the Palas arts of paint­ing, architecture and sculpture were highly developed. Under the Senas as well, architecture registered a great improvement. The art, architecture and sculpture that had developed under the patronage of the Palas and the Senas have been mostly destroyed during the Moslem invasion.

Yet some of the specimens that have been found here and there give us a clear idea of the excellence reached in art, archi­tecture and sculpture during that period. The Odantapuri Vihara constructed by Gopala is an excellent specimen of the architectural skill of the time. The first Buddhist Vihara at Tibet was constructed in imitation of the Odantapuri Vihara.

In the South-East Asian archipelago copy of the Somapuri Vihara style is largely seen. The Somapuri Vihara had a spacious courtyard and all its four sides’ build­ings, temples, dining halls, etc., were constructed. The ruins of the architectural works of the time of the Palas and Senas have been discovered in many places of Bengal.

In the art of painting and sculpture Dhiman and his son Bitapal reached perfection under the Palas. They knew the art of making images with metal. The sculptural remains of the Pala period force our admiration even today. The greatest artist of the Sena period was Sulapani. During the Pala rule many aqueducts were excavated and some of them exist even to­day in the Dinajpur district.

Religion:

The Pala kings were Buddhists. Buddhism was on the wane in other parts of India at that time, but it was lively in the domains of the Palas. In those parts of India both Buddha and Mahavira were being regarded as Hindu gods. The influence of Saivism and Vaishnavism fell deeply on Buddhism and Jainism and both Buddha and Mahavira Jina were being looked upon as incarna­tion of Siva and Vishnu.

The simplicity of worship in Buddhism which was formerly characteristic of this religion gradually gave place to Hindu rites and rituals as well as mantras in the worship of Bud­dha. As Tantrikism made a deep influence on Buddhism it be­came easy for Hinduism to gradually bring it under its fold. With the gradual introduction of Mudra, Mandal, Rites, Brata, formalities, Mantras, Homa, etc., in Buddhist worship, Buddhism gradually got merged into Hinduism.

Manjusreemulakalpa shows how a good deal of Hinduism had entered into the worship of Buddha. In this way while in other parts of India Buddhism was gradually being mix­ed up with Hinduism, in Bengal under the Palas Buddhism continued to exist in its real form. Although the Pala kings were Buddhists, they were tolerant of other religions. During the Sena period Hinduism became predominant in Bengal.

Contact with the Outside World under the Palas and the Senas:

Under the Palas and the Senas, particularly under the Palas Bengal was regarded as the source of religion, industry, literature, trade and Commerce. Bengal was the mistress of Nepal, Tibet, China, Japan, Burma, Ceylon, Java, Sumatra, etc. From Tamralipti and Saptagram a large number of merchant vessels would carry on regular trade with Ceylon, Burma, Java, Sumatra, etc.

Many princes and merchants who for one reason or other had lost their fortune would go to Suvarnadwipa, that is Sumatra and other South-East Asian countries to repair their fortune and would come back with ship loads of gold. For this, the region generally came to be known as Suvarnadwipa, par­ticularly meaning Sumatra.

Due to the patronage of the Palas Buddhism had spread to South-East Asian countries like Sumatra, Java, Burma, Japan and also to Tibet, China, etc. In Devapala’s royal rescript there is mention of three kings of the Sailendra dynasty of Sumatra, Java, etc. A Bengali called Kumara Ghosa was the preceptor (guru) of the Sailen­dra Kings.

The king of Sumatra, Balaputradeva, sent an emissary to Devapala asking for five villages in the vicinity of Nalanda for construction of a monastery for the scholars from Sumatra. From all this, it may be presumed that in the Suvarnabhumi, i.e., the South- East Asian archipelago religion and culture of Bengal had spread. Buildings of the style of Sompuri Vihara were constructed in this region.

Commercial and cultural relations with Tibet with India was much older than the Pala period. The king of Tibet, Strong-San-Gampo, was instrumental to the spread of Buddhism in Tibet. Many Buddhist monks came to Nalanda to study Buddhist philosophy. It was at the invitation of the king of Tibet that the Palas sent Ratna Bajra and Atish Dipankar to Tibet to reform the Buddhist religion there. The first Buddhist Vihara in Tibet was constructed after the style of Odantapuri Mahavihara. A brisk trade also was carried on between Bengal and Tibet during the Pala rule.

During the Pala rule the religious and commercial relations between Bengal and China went on uninterrupted. In 973 a professor from Nalanda went to China being invited by the Chinese emperor. Many other Buddhist monks from other parts of India also had gone to China at that time. Likewise a large number of Chinese Buddhist monies came to visit India during the Pala rule; five of them left an inscription at Bodhgaya.

Through Burma, Tibet and China both religious and cultural in­fluences spread to Japan during the Pala rule.

The Sena kings were also great patrons of religion. They were patrons of Brahmanical Hinduism. Vallal Sen sent religious prea­chers to Magadha, Chittagong, Arakan, Orissa and Nepal for preach­ing Brahmanical Hinduism.

From the above narrative it will be evident that under the Palas and the Senas in the fields of politics, religion, literature and culture there was an unprecedented development in Bengal. The Senas were last independent Hindu ruling dynasty of Bengal. During the reign of Lakshman Sen the last of the Sena rulers Ikhtiyar-ud-din Mohammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji defeated Lakshman Sen and occupied his capital at Nadia in 1197. Lakshman Sen withdrew to East Bengal where he and his successor ruled for some time more.