1. Partitioning of Africa:
From the 15th century onwards, many points on the African coast were occupied by the maritime nations of Europe.
However, the scramble for power in Africa took place during the latter half of the 19th century. Up to that time, most of Africa was regarded as the “Dark Continent” and not much was known about it to the world at large.
Explorers and missionaries opened the way and pointed out the potentialities of Africa.
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The names of Stanley, Livingstone, Baker, Burton, Grant and Speke are famous in this connection. These persons explored the courses of the four great rivers viz, the Nile, the Niger, the Congo and the Zambezi. Christian missionaries carried on active propaganda in South Africa and on the Guinea Coast.
The curiosity and interest of Europeans were aroused by the publication of the books of Stanley. His most important books were How I Found Livingstone, Through the Dark Continent and In Darkest Africa. Leopold II, King of Belgium, took keen interest in African affairs.
He summoned, in 1876, an International Conference of Geographers from all parts of the world to consider ways and means for the exploration and civilization of Africa. Suggestions were invited for opening the interior of Africa for industry and commerce. An International African Association was set up and its branches were also established in many countries.
The voyages of Stanley directed the attention of the African Association to the Congo and it was decided to concentrate on its exploration. As the enterprise was financed by King Leopold himself as an individual, the Congo Free State became the personal monopoly of King Leopold himself.
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The gains of Leopold aroused the jealousy of others. Both Portugal and France also put forward their claims to the Congo. Many European nations sent their agents to the various parts of Africa to acquire concessions. Separate treaties were entered into with the native chiefs and thus spheres of influence were acquired.
In 1884-85, a conference was held at Berlin and most of the agreements made with the native chiefs up to that time were recognised. Even after that, the process of penetration into Africa continued with the result that with the exception of Abyssinia and Liberia, practically the whole of Africa was acquired by the various European Powers.
Up to 1908, the Congo Free State continued to be the personal property of King Leopold II of Belgium. However, there was a lot of criticism against that arrangement, and consequently in that year the Government of Belgium took over the territory from the King. Portugal also established her hold over the province of Angola situated to the south of the Belgian Congo.
She also established the colony of Mozambique or Portuguese East Africa. Italy secured Eritrea and Italian Somaliland. She tried to acquire Abyssinia but she was defeated in the battle of Adowa. Italy also intended to acquire Tunis, but as she delayed matters, France established her protectorate over it in 1881.
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However, Italy fought against Turkey in 1911 -12 and secured Tripoli and Cyrenaica. Spain acquired a province on the north-west coast of Africa. In 1906, she acquired a sphere on the coast opposite to Gibraltar. Although Bismarck was reluctant to enter the colonial field, he was converted later on. Germany acquired the territories of South-West Africa, South-East Africa, the Cameroons and Togoland.
France had already established her control over Algeria in the time of Louis Philippe. The province was developed in the time of Napoleon III. In 1881, she established her protectorate over Tunis. Both France and Great Britain had dual control over Egypt, but in 1882 France refused to co-operate with Great Britain to put down the revolt of Arabi and the result was that from 1892 Great Britain came to have sole control over Egypt and France was ousted.
France possessed a big colonial empire in North and West Africa and she intended to penetrate to the East of Africa. For that purpose, Marchand was sent by the French Government. In 1898, there occurred the famous Fashoda crisis. There was a possibility of war between England and France but it was avoided by Delcasse and Salisbury.
The agreement of 1899 demarcated the spheres of influence of France and Great Britain. The Entente Cordiale of 1904 provided that England was to have a free hand in Egypt but she was to support France in Morocco. When France tried to establish her stranglehold over Morocco, three crises took place in 1905-6, 1908 and 1911.
Ultimately, in 1912, Morocco became practically a protectorate of France. In 1896, France acquired the island of Madagascar. She had her control over the whole of the Sahara region. She also had her holdings on the Senegal, the Ivory Coast and the Congo.
2. South Africa:
As regards South Africa, the Bushmen, Hottentots Kafirs, Zalus and other kindred races came into conflict with the Europeans. There was also competition between the Dutch and the British. The Dutch Boers were backward and cruel, but the British colonists, officials and soldiers were more advanced and were also supported by the British Government.
There were frontier wars between the Kafirs and the Europeans. The Great Trek of 1836-40 resulted in the migration of more than 7,000 Dutch Boers from British South Africa to the valleys of the Orange and Vaal rivers. The British policy towards the Boers was not a consistent one. For some time, they were allowed to be independent.
However, in 1842, the British Government put forward its claim to Natal, and in 1848 the Orange River Colony was annexed by Great Britain. The Boers once again migrated into the Transvaal. Great Britain recognised the independence of the Transvaal and restored to the Boers the Orange River Colony. Disraeli wanted to bring about a union of all the States of South Africa under British control and he wanted the Boers of Transvaal to join the union.
He commissioned Frere for that purpose, and after a lot of trouble the Transvaal was annexed. However, the Boers proclaimed their independence on 16 December 1880 under the leadership of Kruger.The war was a short one and was suddenly ended by the British Government after four disasters. The last disaster took place at Majuba Hill in February 1881. That defeat could easily have been repaired and General Roberts had already been sent to South Africa from India with an expeditionary force.
However, the British Government changed its mind and Gladstone came to the conclusion that the Boers were determined to have their independence and it was no use shedding blood by defeating them in the battlefields merely to restore the prestige of British arms. No power could change the determination of the Boers to be independent. Under the circumstances, a treaty was made with the Boers in March 1881. The Boers were given complete self-government under the suzerainty of the British Crown.
The conciliatory policy of Gladstone towards the Boers was interpreted by them as a sign of British weakness and a strong nationalist movement started among them under President Kruger. As a reaction, an equally strong nationalist movement was started among the British colonists as well and the leader of the movement was Cecil Rhodes.
Rhodes was a great imperialist and he dreamt of expanding the British control from the Cape to Cairo. Under his guidance and patronage, a chartered Company was set up and that Company acquired what is called Rhodesia.
The Dutch found their position endangered. The discovery of diamond and gold fields added to the attraction of Transvaal. Under the leadership of Dr. Jameson, a raid was made in 1895 on Transvaal, but it was unsuccessful. The raiders were overpowered without much difficulty. President Kruger was congratulated by William II, the German Emperor, and the famous telegram created a lot of bitterness between Great Britain and Germany.
In spite of the failure of the raid, the struggle for supremacy continued and ultimately that resulted in the Boer War of 1899-1901. The Boers put up a very stiff fight but ultimately were defeated. Peace was made in 1902 and the two Boer Republics of Transvaal and Orange Free State were annexed to the British Crown.
There was a lot of criticism of the British Government during the days of the Boer War. Within five years of the peace, Transvaal and the Orange Free State were given responsible self-government. In 1909, all the British possessions of South Africa were united into the Union of South Africa. When the World War I broke out in 1914, the Boer armies under Smuts and Botha conquered German East Africa.
3. Egypt:
After the departure of Napoleon I, there was anarchy in Egypt, but by his personal initiative and resourcefulness, Mehmet Ali, an adventurer, was able to establish hold over that territory. He helped the Sultan in the Greek War of Independence and was given the Island of Crete as a reward for his services.
He was not contented with that and he managed to establish his control over Syria and Asia Minor. He even threatened Constantinople. As the Sultan entered into the Treaty of Unkiar Skelessi in 1833 with Russia, Mehmet Ali had to keep quiet.
The war was renewed once again by the Sultan but he was defeated and killed. However, by the Treaty of London of 1840, the European Powers came to the rescue of the young Sultan. Mehmet Ali was ousted from Syria and ultimately by the treaty of 1841, he was recognised as the hereditary Governor of Egypt.
Before his death in 1847, Mehmet Ali was able to bring prosperity to Egypt. He left behind him canals, roads, factories, arsenals, schools and hospitals. He introduced into the Delta of the Nile the cotton plant which was destined to add to the wealth and prosperity of that country.
Mehmet Ali was succeeded by his son Ibrahim, the hero of the Greek War of Independence but he died within a few months. Abbas came to the throne in 1849 and ruled for 5 years. He was cruel, sensual and avaricious and was murdered by a slave. He was succeeded by Said who ruled from 1854 to 1863. The construction of railways started in the country and the first railway was built in 1855 between Alexandria and Cairo.
The construction of the Suez Canal was also taken up during his reign. Said encouraged the discovery and preservation of the old monuments and founded a museum at Cairo. In 1862, he contracted a loan of £ 3,292,800 at the rate of 8% interest without making any adequate arrangement for paying it.
4. Ismail:
Ismail, the son of Ibrahim, came to throne in 1863. He spent a large sum of money on the construction of railways, telegraphs, lighthouses, harbours and the Suez Canal. The Suez Canal was opened for traffic in 1869. Egypt contributed approximately one-half of the total money spent on the construction of the canal. Many rulers and statesmen of Europe were invited to Egypt on the occasion of the opening ceremony and a lot of money was spent on that occasion. A lot of money was also wasted on the war in the Sudan.
The construction of royal palaces involved a lot of expenditure. Ismail was careless about money matters and he kept no accounts. He was his own finance minister. Although he considered himself to be clever, he was tricked by others. Each loan cost the State more than 12%. The railway loan of 1866 actually cost the State 26.9%. The £32 million loan of 1873 pledged all the available securities of the State but the Egyptian treasury actually received the sum of £20,700,000 only. The financial position became so serious that on 8 April 1876, the payment of Treasury Bills was suspended.
On 2 May 1876, the Commission of Public Debt was set up by a decree of Ismail. France, Austria and Italy appointed their commissioners but the British Government refused to appoint their nominee. Ultimately, Dual Control was established over Egypt by Great Britain and France.
In 1879, Great Britain joined the French Government in demanding a full enquiry into the financial position of Egypt and Ismail had to submit. He was also forced to recognise the principle of ministerial responsibility in Egypt. The Dual Control was suspended and responsible ministers remained in power for 5 years. Most of the property of the Khedive was taken over by the State and a fresh loan was raised on that security.
Early in 1879, Ismail demanded the resignation of his ministers. This created a very difficult situation Italy was friendly inclined towards the Khedive and Russia kept aloof. Turkey played a waiting game. England, France and Germany joined hands and demanded the deposition of Ismail by the Sultan. In June 1879, the Khedive was deposed by the Sultan and his son Tewfik was appointed in his place.
5. Tewfik:
Tewfik Pasha succeeded to a bankrupt State and an undisciplined army and discontented people On account of his youth and inexperience, he was unable to cope with the situation. An attempt was made by Turkey to tighten her hold over Egypt. The Anglo-French Dual Control was revived. Confidence was restored once again. Half the annual revenues of the State were earmarked for the creditors of the State. Things seemed to be improving when in 1881 Tewfik dismissed his War Minister on the demand of rebels.
About 1881 was started a movement with the slogan of “Egypt for the Egyptians”. In September 1881, Arabi, an Egyptian officer, accompanied by 5,000 soldiers, surrounded the royal palace and demoded an increase of the army, a change of ministry and a national assembly. The government submitted and Arabi himself was promoted. Arabi became a national hero. However, the problem became complicated by the arrival of a Turkish mission.
Gambetta invited Great Britain to discuss matters for the security of Tewfik and proposed a joint assurance of sympathy and support to him. The note was accepted and communicated to Tewfik. The Anglo-French note of January 1882 was an unfortunate step. Tewfik was not grateful and everybody else was angry at the idea of foreign intervention. The National Party, the military and Chamber united in a common bond of opposition to England and France.
According to Dr. Gooch the Anglo-French Note was a blunder of the first magnitude. It brought strength not to Tewfik but to Arabi who became the hero of the nation. He was appointed the Minister of War and the power of the Controllers decreased. Lord Cromer says, “From the moment the joint note was issued, foreign intervention became an unavoidable necessity.”
After the note was communicated, Gambetta fell and he was succeeded by Freycinet. The Sultan opposed the intervention of the Powers in Egypt. Bismarck was the least concerned. He declared that Egypt was the Schleswig-Holstein of the two Western Powers and they would intervene together but quarrel over the spoils.
There were riots in Alexandria in June 1882 and many persons were killed. Freycinet began to think in terms of coming to terms with Arabi. However, the British Government decided to crash Arabi. As the Egyptians began to fortify Alexandria, the safety of the ships in that harbour was threatened. The British Squadron was instructed to destroy the earthworks if the erection of batteries was continued.
France was asked to co-operate but she refused to do so and the French Fleet sailed away from Alexandria. Many reasons have been given to explain the withdrawal of the French Government. The proposed bombardment of Alexandria was an act of war and that could not be done without the consent of the Chamber of Deputies.
France had established her protectorate over Tunis in 1881 and she found her hands too full. The French Government was also afraid that Bismarck might be laying a trap for her in Egypt. It was under these circumstances that England was left all alone in Egypt. England requested Italy to join but she also refused.
It is stated that the British Foreign Minister was happy at the refusal. To quote him, “We have done the right thing. We have shown our readiness to admit others and we have not the inconvenience of a partner.” In the case of a joint action there was every possibility of friction in the future. The Sultan offered to send troops but his conditions were not accepted England declared that the Suez Canal would be safeguarded.
General Wolseley sailed from Port Said and in September 1882 crushed Arabi in the Battle of Tel-el Kabir. Thus England became the master of the situation. Bismarck was delighted at the news of British victory and declared that “the friendship of the British Empire is much more important for us than the fate of Egypt.”
He did not oppose the annexation of Egypt by England but he was also not prepared to advise its annexation. France was offered the presidency of the Commission for debt, but it was declined on the ground that it was inconsistent with the dignity of France to accept the position of a cashier. There were some sharp diplomatic exchanges and after that France “resumed her liberty of action”.
The hostilities between the two countries on the question of Egypt continued up to 1904 when the Entente Cordiale gave England a free hand in Egypt and France a free hand in Morocco. When Great Britain was consolidating her position in Egypt, there broke out in Sudan the fanatical rising of the Mahdi against the Egyptian rule. The Mahdi defeated the Egyptian Army. The British Government was in a fix and did not know what to do. After some delay, it was decided to withdraw from Sudan and General Gordon was sent for that purpose.
Unfortunately, the General went beyond instructions and was besieged. Before help could reach him, he was caught and killed in Khartum. The Mahdi was able to set up a reign of terror and destruction. The British Government followed a policy of caution but ultimately Kitchener was sent to complete the conquest of Sudan. After its conquest, Sudan was put under the joint control of England and Egypt.
When England occupied Egypt in 1882, the Government of Gladstone declared that it would not stay there for long. Lord Granville “contemplated shortly commencing the withdrawal of the fresh troops from Egypt.” Lord Dufferin was sent from Constantinople to Cairo on a special mission “to advise the government of Khedive in the arrangements which would have to be made for the re-establishment of His Highness’s authority.”
Arabi Pasha was tried and sent to Ceylon to spend his days in exile. Lord Dufferin recommended that Egypt was to be governed neither from London nor by an irresponsible centralized bureaucracy but by the representative institutions of the people. The Legislative Council and the Assembly were to be created but they were to be merely consultative bodies.
The army, police, the judicial system and the taxation system were to be overhauled and the help of foreigners was to be taken for that purpose. His recommendations were accepted by the British Government and carried out by stages. Granville declared that “His Majesty’s Government are desirous of withdrawing as soon as the state of the country and the organization of proper means for the maintenance of the Khedive’s authority will admit of it.” The Suez Canal was to be neutral in times of war and open to all the Powers in times of peace.
Lord Northbrook visited Egypt in 1884 and submitted two reports to the British Government containing his recommendations. However, those were not accepted by the government. In 1888, the Suez Canal Treaty was made which was satisfactory to France. However, England reserved to herself the right to close the Canal in times of war.
6. Cromer in Egypt:
The British Government appointed Mr. Baring in 1882 as agent and Consul- General and he continued his work up to 1907. Later on, he was called Lord Cromer. During his tenure of office, he accomplished a lot of work and added to the peace and prosperity of the country. Law and order was restored and maintained. The deficit budget was turned into a surplus budget.
The police was reorganized on modem lines. Education was encouraged and public health was also promoted. Irrigation facilities were increased. The Egyptians were encouraged to go abroad and acquire higher education. These Egyptians brought from abroad the ideas of progress and nationalism. Corruption was removed from administration and inequitable taxes were abolished. The whole of the taxation system was put on a sound footing.
7. Egypt during World War I:
It was under these circumstances that World War I broke out in 1914. Nominally, Egypt was still under the Turkish rule. As Turkey was fighting against England, it was decided to put an end to the Turkish rule in Egypt. On 18 December 1914, the British Government declared that “in view of the state of war arising out of the action of Turkey, Egypt is placed under the protection of His Majesty and will henceforth constitute a British protectorate.”
The Khedive, Abbas Hilmi, who was then in Constantinople, was deposed and his uncle, Hussein Kiamil, was recognized as the future ruler and given the title of the Sultan. This action of Great Britain was resented by the nationalists of Egypt who felt that in spite of the repeated declarations of the British Government that they were determined to withdraw as soon as possible, the British stranglehold over the country was being strengthened.
In spite of the resentment, there was quiet in Egypt during the period of war. Turkey and Germany made two attempts to get control of the Suez Canal and invaded Egypt, but both of those attempts were unsuccessful. In April and July 1915, attempts were made on the life of the Sultan.
However, there was serious trouble after the war when the Allies enunciated the principle of self-determination as the basis of their policy. Egypt felt that this principle should be applied to her and she should be allowed to decide her own future. The Egyptians demanded the complete independence of their country, neutralization of the Suez Canal and control over Sudan. However, the British Government was not prepared to give up its control over Egypt. Her Protectorate over Egypt was recognized by the Allies at Paris as well as by the Treaty of Sevres of 1920 between Turkey and the Allies.
8. Zaghlul:
Zaghlul was the leader of the Egyptian nationalists. And he would not keep quiet he was arrested in March 1919 and deported to the Island of Malta. But instead of crushing the nationalist movement, this action of the government added to the anti-British feeling in the country. Railroads were cut at many places. There were cases of arson and looting. British soldiers and civilians were attacked. Foreign quarters were besieged. Cairo was cut off from the rest of the country.
Although the rebellion was crushed, yet it became clear to the British Government that it would not be an easy task to rule Egypt. It was decided to send a mission to Egypt under the chairmanship of Lord Milner “to enquire into the causes of the recent disorders and to report on the existing situation in the country and the form of the situation which, under the Protectorate, will be best calculated to promote its peace and prosperity, the progressive development of self-governing institutions and the protection of foreign interests.”
The mission was boycotted by the Egyptians. However, it made a liberal report and recommended the grant of a large measure of self-government to the people. Disorders continued in the country. General Allenby was sent to Egypt at the head of an army of 60,000 men. Although he crushed the revolt, his view was that Great Britain must either grant Egypt her independence or annex her by force.
A treaty was made in 1921 by which it was declared that “Egypt is an independent, sovereign State.” Sultan Ahmed Fuad was recognized as the King of Egypt. The treaty was rejected by leaders like Zaghlul and it had to be enforced by the British Government by a unilateral proclamation of February 1922. Zaghlul was ultimately released by the British Government and he became the Prime Minister of Egypt.
Egypt proceeded to act as if she was independent and Great Britain continued to believe that Egypt was still a part of the British Empire. Zaghlul died in 1927 but his programme was continued by his followers. During the reign of Fuad, British influence was very great in Egypt. In 1930, a new constitution was proclaimed.
9. The Anglo-Egyptian Treaty:
In 1936, the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty was signed. At that time, the safety of Egypt was considered to be in danger on account of the action of Mussolini in Abyssinia. Egypt herself felt that her safety was in danger. The Treaty of 1936 pledged Great Britain to defend Egypt from external aggression. The defence of the Suez Canal zone was also taken over by the British Government. The treaty was to last for 20 years.
During World War II, British troops were stationed in Egypt. Germany and Italy were busy in North Africa and no wonder Egypt once again felt that her security was threatened. Air attacks were made on the Canal Zone. However, the United Nations were able to push back the Germans and the Italians from their base in Egypt. Undoubtedly, Egypt played a very important part in the ultimate victory of the United Nations.
When the World War II ended in 1945, there was a demand for the cancellation of the Treaty of 1936. The treaty was regarded as a symbol of the slavery of the people of Egypt. The Wafd Government in October 1951 unilaterally repudiated the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936. King Farouk was declared to be the King of Egypt and Sudan.
The British Government was asked to withdraw her troops from the Suez Canal zone. There was serious rioting all over Egypt. There were frequent changes of government in the country. By a coup d’etat, led by General Naguib and his colleagues. King Farouk was forced to abdicate and leave the country.
The people of Egypt were not prepared to tolerate the continuation of the British troops in the Suez Canal Zone. The British were also not willing to withdraw at once. As the Egyptian demand persisted, negotiations were started between the two countries and ultimately an agreement was signed on 27 July, 1954. The agreement provided that the British troops were to leave the Canal Zone within 20 months.
However, they were to be allowed to return to the base in the event of an armed attack by an outside power on Turkey or on any Arab State. The base was to be maintained by a British civilian contracting firm. The duration of the new agreement was 7 years. This agreement recognised that the Suez Canal was a waterway of international importance and both the parties guaranteed the freedom of navigation through the Canal.
On 26 July 1956, President Nasser who had succeeded Naguib, declared the nationalisation of the Suez Canal and freezed the funds of the Suez Canal Company in Egypt. Great Britain freezed all Egyptian assets on 28 July 1956. The United States and France began to apply economic sanctions against Egypt from that date. Great Britain ordered general mobilization of her forces and despatched troops to an unknown destination. The United States and France stood behind her. Their object was to put pressure on Egypt and thereby get the decision reversed. Egypt, however, did not bother about the threats.
Great Britain invited 24 nations to attend a conference in London on 16 August, 1956 to discuss the question of the Suez Canal. Out of the 24 nations, 22 accepted the invitation. Egypt and Greece declined the invitation. The London Conference was held from 16 August to 23 August under the chairmanship of Selwyn Lloyd, Foreign Secretary of Great Britain. On the opening day, Mr. Dulles submitted a plan to solve the Suez Canal issue.
According to his plan, the operation of the Suez Canal was to be made the responsibility of an international board. Egypt was to be represented on that board but there was to be no domination by any single power. There was to be no prejudice to any power. The right of Egypt to an equitable return was to be recognised. Fair compensation was to be paid to the Suez Canal Company. Dulles made it clear that while framing his plan he had taken into consideration four principles.
The first principle was that the Canal should be operated efficiently and freely and in accordance with the Convention of Constantinople of 1888. The second principle was that the operation of the Canal must be divorced from national politics. The third principle was that the legitimate rights of Egypt should be recognised and she should be given a fair return. The fourth principle was that compensation should be paid to the company. The Soviet delegate put forward his own Plan.
The Dulles Plan was backed by 17 countries and the record of the London Conference was forwarded to Egypt. That plan was rejected by President Nasser. On 12 September 1956, British Prime Minister declared that the United States, Great Britain and France were setting up a Users’ Association which was to be responsible for traffic through the Suez Canal.
The matter was also referred to the Security Council by Great Britain and France. On 13 October 1956, the Security Council adopted a resolution which affirmed six principles providing a basis for further negotiations. Those principles provided that there should be free and open transit through the Canal without discrimination. The sovereignty of Egypt was to be respected. The operation of the Canal was to be separated from the politics of any country.
The manner of fixing tolls and charges was to be decided by agreement between Egypt and the users. A fair proportion of the dues were to be allotted for purposes of development. All disputes were to be settled by arbitration with suitable provision for the payment of sums found to be due. Another resolution providing for international control of the Suez Canal was vetoed by the Soviet Union in the Security Council.
On 29 October 1956, the forces of Israel attacked the Egyptian positions in the Suez Canal area. On 31 October 1956, Great Britain and France also joined the attack on Egypt. A resolution was moved in the Security Council asking for the cessation of hostilities but that resolution was vetoed by Great Britain and France.
On 2 November 1956 the General Assembly passed a resolution which expressed great concern at the British, French and Israeli military operations in the Suez Canal area and called upon the Powers concerned to order immediately a cease-fire. On 4 November 1956, the General Assembly adopted a resolution asking the Secretary-General of the United Nations to submit a Plan for an emergency United Nations force to secure and supervise the end of hostilities in Egypt.
On 5 November 1956, the Soviet Union gave a warning to Great Britain and France that in case they did not stop fighting in Egypt, she would also join the war. The United States also put pressure on Great Britain and France, and thus the hostilities came to an end. A lot of damage had been done to the Suez Canal during the hostilities and a lot of money was spent by the United Nations for getting the same repaired and made suitable once again for navigation. All this was done by April 1957.
The Arab States were not prepared to put up with the very existence of Israel in their midst. Raids were organised on Israel by a Syrian terrorist organization known as A1 Fateh or El Safa. On 7 January 1965, certain water installations were dynamited on the Israeli side of the Jordan border. These provocations continued off and on for nearly 18 months. Some of these came from Jordan, some from Lebanon, some from Syria and some from the United Arab Republic.
Major-General Rikhye, U.N. Secretary-General’s Chief Military Observer, and another high U.N. official visited Jordan and held consultations with the two Governments on the means of avoiding further incidents. In spite of that, clashes continued to occur. The situation on the Syrian border took a turn for the worse in March 1965.
There were repeated exchanges of fire. The Syrian claim that Israeli tractors were intruding into Syrian territory was rejected by the Israeli-Syrian Mixed Armistice Commission. Israeli reprisals for raids launched from Jordan and Syria in the summer of 1965 involved the destruction of 3 Syrian tanks and several A1 Fateh bases and training camps.
The incidents on both sides grew, in intensity from April 1966 onwards. However, a decisive development took place in November 1966. A joint defence pact was signed between the United Arab Republic and Syria. It provided that an attack on one would be regarded as an attack on the other.
On 4 November 1966, Israel presented a complaint of “acts of aggression” by Syria to the Security Council. A resolution, co-sponsored by six countries and designed to promote a compromise solution, was vetoed by the Soviet Union. Israel launched on 13 November 1966 her biggest offensive against Jordan since the invasion of the Suez. A meeting of the Security Council was summoned and the State of Israel was condemned for the attack.
The American Government declared on 22 December 1966 its decision to send defensive arms to Jordan to strengthen her security against Israel. On 7 April 1967, Israel got the opportunity to hit directly at Syria. A minor border incident over ploughing in the demilitarised zone south-east of the Sea of Galilee erupted into a near-war situation. Six Syria’s most modem, M.I.G. fighters were shot down.
Although the United Arab Republic was committed to intervene under the pact with Syria, she kept quiet. To bolster the morale of the Syrians, the number of roads on the frontier was increased. The American Sixth Fleet arrived in Arab waters. King Hussein of Jordan went to Teheran for a meeting with the Shah of Iran. King Faisal of Saudi Arabia went to London.
Heavy Egyptian troop movements were reported on 15 May 1967, President Nasser requested the Secretary-General of the United Nations to withdraw the United Nations Emergency Force which was a sort of barrier between the U.A.R. and Israel. The Secretary-General agreed and withdrew the Force. President Nasser then closed the Gulf of Aqaba to all Israeli ships.
It was claimed that the waters of the Tirana Strait belonged to the United Arab Republic. The situation began to worsen and there was the imminent danger of a war. On 4 June 1967, Israel attacked the United Arab Republic and destroyed a large number of her aircrafts. Fighting started on many fronts.
Although all the Muslim countries of the region declared war against Israel, most of the fighting was done by the United Arab Republic, Syria and Jordan. The war lasted for about a week and the Arabs were completely defeated. A cease-fire was declared in compliance with a resolution of the Security Council.
There was a lot of resentment as Israel refused to evacuate the territories captured by it. The Arabs were determined to have their revenge for the humiliation of 1967. On 27 May 1971, a treaty was concluded between the Soviet Union and Egypt by which both the parties agreed to cooperate with each other.
The Soviet Union also agreed to help Egypt in every way. It was with the help of the Soviet Union that Egypt was successful in her attack against Israel on 6 October 1973. The Soviet Union played an important part in bringing about a cease-fire. However, there were violations on a large scale of the truce of 22 October 1973 by Israel and the result was that the Third Army of Egypt was encircled and the road between Cairo and Suez was cut off.
When such was the situation, Brezhnev, the Soviet Chief, addressed a “brutal” note to President Nixon in which it was stated that Moscow would “be faced with the necessity urgently to consider the question of taking appropriate steps unilaterally” if the United States refused to join in sending forces to enforce the Arab-Israeli cease-fire.
The result was that President Nixon ordered a world-wide alert of the U.S. forces and activated even the American nuclear weaponry. There was the possibility of a confrontation between the Super Powers of the magnitude of the Cuban crisis of 1962. However, the crisis was averted and the cease-fire was declared. In spite of that, war was continued by Syria.
In 1974, there were breaches of peace on the Suez and Syrian fronts. Efforts were made by the United States to bring about peace between Egypt and Israel. A conference, cosponsored by the United States and the Soviet Union, was attended by Egypt, Jordan and Israel but was boycotted by Syria. An agreement was reached on the dis-engagement of the forces on the Suez front and the same was carried out. An agreement was made on Syrian-Israeli dis-engagement later on. The U.N. dis-engagement forces were established on Syrian-Israeli front. In 1975, PLO was given a permanent observer status at the United Nations.
As a result of the restoration of friendly relations between President Sadat of Egypt and the United States, an agreement was arrived at by which Israel agreed to evacuate the Sinai territory, provided American observers were stationed on the spot to maintain peace between the two countries.